History & Limnology Flashcards
1
Q
origins of the name OCEANOGRAPHY
A
Okeanos (or Oceanus) was the father of ocean nymphs (the Oceanids) in Greek mythology
Graphia is Greek for recording or describing
The word Oceanography is inadequate
and probably Oceanology (ology = “the science of) is more appropriate.
2
Q
what is Biological Oceanography?
A
involves studying organisms in their environment and typically involves the use of ships, though some lab culture work/experimentation may be involved.
3
Q
what is marine biology?
A
usually involves the study of the biology of the organism itself and how it has adapted to its environment. Often the organism is taken from its environment and studied in the lab. Usually a “hip boot” type science.
4
Q
When did the greek (Herodotus) compile a map of the known world?
A
450 BC
5
Q
when did the Greek Pytheas explore the coast of England and Norway? AND what did they develop?
A
325 BC
developed means of determining latitude from the declination of the North Star. He also proposed a relationship between the Moon and Tides
6
Q
Who published De Temporum Ratione? AND what was the time frame?
A
The English monk Bede
673-735 AD
7
Q
When did Ponce de Leon describe the Florida current (golf stream)?
A
1513 – this was during the age of exploration
8
Q
when did Robert Boyle investigate the relationship between salinity temperature and pressure with depth in seawater?
A
1674 – during the age of exploration
9
Q
Captain James Cook’s voyages produce extensive data on geography on what? When were they?
A
geology, biota, currents, tides, and water temperature of Atlantic and Pacific.
1768-79
10
Q
who were the botanists on board Cooks voyages?
A
Banks (British) And Solander (Swedish) were two botanists on board
11
Q
who sailed to the artic and when?
A
Sir John Ross
1817-1818
explore Baffin Island and he recovered starfish and polychaete worms from 1800 m thus proving life exists in the ocean depths.
12
Q
in 1820 Alexander Marcet noted what?
A
that the proportion (ratios) of chemical ingredients
in seawater is unvarying in all the oceans
13
Q
When was the Voyage of the Beagle and lead by who?
A
1831-36
Not really a marine science cruise, but Darwin did devise a theory as to how coral atolls are formed. Made some other observations on marine life
14
Q
When was “Origin of the Species”
published and by who?
A
1859, Darwin
15
Q
John Cleves Symmes
A
Proposed that the earth had holes at the poles and from these holes there were several layers inside of the earth with life on inside and outside of each layer
16
Q
The United States Exploring expedition 1838-1842 was lead by who?
A
Led by Lt Charles Wilkes
A bit “full of himself” & selfish
Drove his men very hard
they believed symmes theory
17
Q
more about wilkes
A
sail up the Columbia River plus he discovered that Antarctica was a continent (sailed along it for about 1500 miles)
They collected thousands of plant & animal samples
Anthropological samples formed the basis for the Smithsonian Institution
18
Q
When were diatons discovered? where? by who?
A
1839-43 on british ships, Erebus and Terror in the Antartic
C.G. Ehrenberg was convinced that diatoms were animals because the chloroplasts looked like ovaries.
19
Q
What did Edward Forbes think?
A
that marine organisms could not exist at depth deeper than 300 fathoms (550 m) (too cold & dark)
20
Q
T.H. Huxley
A
came up with the idea of primodial ooz
in 1857:
examined sediments collected in the Atlantic, and he was struck by how similar under the microscope the ooze looked to the chalk in chalk cliffs. Later he re-examined the sediments (which were in alcohol
in 1868 noticed a thin layer of mucous like jelly within which were little granules — Bathybius haeckelii
21
Q
when was the cable raised disproving Forbes and helping the public recognize life in the deep?
A
1860, raised fron 1830Meters
primordial ooz (Urschleim) + the cable got people on board
22
Q
Beginnings of Oceanography
A
1868-70 Charles Wyville Thompson on HMS Lightning & Porcupine on summer cruises collected sea life from great depths and stirred more public interest in exploring the ocean
1871 Fish Commission started in Woods Hole, Massachusetts
23
Q
1860’s what was invented? what was it for?
A
Secchi Disc. Used to measure water clarity
Invented by Italian astronomer Father Angelo Secchi (scientific advisor to the Pope) while working on the Papal vessel Immacolata Concezione. Used to measure water clarity
24
Q
what was happened in 1972?
A
Stazione Zoologica established in Naples by Anton Dohrn 1872. First Marine Biological Lab in the world.
25
Challenger Expedition general information
```
1872
Ship 226 ft long.
240 men
3.5 yrs
5000 new species
7000 specimens
Discovered the Mid Atlantic Ridge
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26
what did the challenger expedition discover
Discovered that life had no depth limits.
Discovered many new species of plankton.
Mapped the sea floor. & discovered Mid-Atlantic Ridge
Collected and characterized sediments and species.
THIS CRUISE MARKED THE REAL BEGINNING
OF OCEANOGRAPHY
27
Who's the father plankton reaserch?
Victor Hensen
“plankton” (wanderers).
He devised a plankton net which was QUANTITATIVE and began studies in upper 200 m. He started studying the distribution of fish eggs in the Baltic because there was interest in why fish stocks fluctuated.
28
What were the first plankton nets made of?
Cotton
then switched to silk becuase the cotton stretched and rotted easy
29
when did the german plankton expedition start?
1889
Made a big figure-8 to the equator and back.
30
Hensens thoughts on plankton?
convinced that plankton were distributed uniformly. However his cruise showed more plankton in north, cold waters than in tropics (but he still argued they were uniformly distributed!).
31
Who is Haeckel?
German scientist, attacked Hensen and said that the tropics must have more plankton than the cold waters because it was warmer and sunnier.
He only based this on what is known of terrestrial systems (polar vs rainforest).
Haeckel said also that plankton were of little importance and that macroalgae and riverine input were much more important as primary producers (base of food chain) in the sea.
32
Explain the Plankton Paradox
Henson was puzzled as to why he found more plankton in the colder darker northern waters.
He hired Brandt, who borrowed ideas from the terrestrial scientists. He recalled Liebig’s “Law of the Minimum” (idea that the required nutrient which is least available is the one that limits growth)
33
Brandt surmised that bacteria ....
break down the dead plankton, but couldn’t figure how the nutrients got from deep to upper water. Gradually, in talking with physical oceanographers, he surmised, that good mixing in north (bringing nutrients up from deep water) but permanent stratification in tropics is the reason for the N-S differences in biomass.
34
When did King Oscar II of Sweden initiate an international program to study causes of fluctuations in fish stocks?
1899
There were good and bad years for fishing and some thought that perhaps the fish just migrated and moved around and this was the cause. The group was called ICES (International Council for the Exploration of the Seas) Started 1902.
*The migrations were thought to be caused by changes in temperature/salinity/wind from year to year.
35
when was the Friday Harbor Lab established? and where?
U Washington in 1903 in San Juan Islands
36
when and where was Scripps insitution of oceanography established?
1903 in La Jolla CA
37
who was C.G. Johannes Peterson?
a Danish fisheries scientist started tagging fish (used buttons made of bone and joined by a wire.
In tagging PLAICE (flounder) he found that the fish did not migrate and pretty much stayed in the same area (many other species do migrate though).
38
Who rediscovered the idea you can age fish by their scales?
Heincke
| they grow faster in summer than winter
39
who was Johannes Hjort?
Johannes Hjort picked up on this fish scale idea and, while looking at fish catch, determined that some year classes were more abundant than others
He then developed the concept to strength of year classes as related to the success of larval survival and its relation to food availability.
40
who thought that 60-90% of plankton were going throuhg the plankton nets?
Lohmann -- He called them nanoplankton and discovered them in the guts of zooplankton.
41
Who postulated that Nitrogen limits production in the sea?
Karl Brandt came to Kiel in 1887.
He had described the N cycle on land and postulated that N limits production in the sea..
He noted that since the rivers were constantly putting N into the sea but the sea’s N content remained stable, then denitrifying bacteria (convert NO3 to N2 gas) must remove the excess N.
42
who and when was Continental Drift proposed?
In 1912 the German, Alfred Wegener, proposed that continents had once been together but drifted apart.
it was not accepted until the 1970's
43
The Carlsberg foundation?
Danish Foundation funded three major cruises & research 1910-1933
beer
Johannes Schmidt studied life history of the eel
44
What did Schmidt notice about leptocephalus larvae?
size of leptocephalus larvae increased as you got closer to Europe
He proposed
That they
spawned in
Sargasso Sea
45
William Beebe & Otis Barton
Bathysphere dives near Bermuda in 1930s. Saw bioluminescence
Dives to 922 meters. Ignited public interest.
46
when was "the Oceans" published?
1942 published by Sverdrup, Johnson & Fleming. Provided a foundation for study of the sea. Comprehensive book.
47
Where is Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution? and when was it established?
1930 established on Cape Cod. Now is premier east coast lab
48
Claude Zobell
1st Marine Microbiologist at Scripps. Classical Microbiologist .
Used classical culturing methods. Noted near shore ca. 1000 bacteria/ml but offshore only 100. Postulated that bacteria in the sea all came from land and they were getting diluted offshore.
Later he realized that he was just culturing ca 0.1% of the bacteria and you can’t use classical culture methods to estimate abundance of marine bacteria.
49
Sverdrup, became the Director of Scripps Institution of Oceanography in ....
1938
The book “The Oceans” formed the basis for teaching oceanography.
Sverdrup is credited with giving Scripps excellent scientific foundation.
His contributions to oceanography were so vast that an oceanographic term is named after him. A “Sverdrup” is the movement of one million m3 of water per second
50
John Steele
In this book (1974) Steele has bacteria playing almost no role in cycling of nutrients or carbon
51
Gordon Riley and Steemann
| Nielsen controversy
1950's
O2 vs 14C. S-N said Riley overestimated PP in sea.
52
“Bacteria of little importance in ocean” theory proved incorrect by..
Late 1960’s to ’70’s:
John Hobbie & Richard Wright with the development of the acridine orange method with 14C labeled glucose to show activity. The bacteria were very active!
53
Synechococcus & Prochlorococcus.
The smallest (0.8-1.0 um) phytoplankters are the most important. Lohmann was right!
Discovery of very high abundance of coccoid cyanobacteria, responsible for C fixation. 1980s-90s
54
Martin proposed that the ice ages were caused by
iron dust.
The dust blew into the ocean and stimulated phytoplankton growth.
Phytoplankton then pulled CO2 out of the atmosphere lowering the concentration of this “greenhouse gas” causing the ice age
55
in the 90's Bergh et al., and Proctor & Fuhrman
Importance of viruses in the sea. Very high virus concentrations, and plankton constantly infected. Smallest particles shown below are viruses
56
what is the Nansen Bottle (invented by Fridtjof Nansen in 1910)
Bottles placed in a series on Hydrographic wire with a messenger attached at bottom of each bottle to trip the next bottle in line.
The bottles contained reversing thermometers in which a column of mercury “broke” when the bottle flipped, thus recording the water temperature
57
what is an Argo float?
Data on temperature, wind, salinity.
Deployed, sinks, takes measurements, pops up, transmits data to satellite, sinks and repeats.
58
what is an Argo float?
Data on temperature, wind, salinity.
Deployed, sinks, takes measurements, pops up, transmits data to satellite, sinks and repeats.
59
What was the incentive for Congress to fund the Wilkes Expedition? What discoveries did it make?
explore the entrances to the holes (at the poles of the earth)
Discovered that Antartica was a continent
They collected thousands of plant & animal samples
Anthropological samples formed the basis for the Smithsonian Institution
60
What was Bathybius haeckelii?
Urschleim (primordial slime/ ooz)
61
What big cruise was the foundation for Oceanographic Research (hint: started in 1872) What were a few important discoveries?
Challenger Expedition
- life had no depth limits.
- new species of plankton
- Mapped the sea floor. & discovered Mid-Atlantic Ridge
- characterized sediments
62
Who was the Father of plankton research?
Victor Hensen
63
Why did Hensen find more plankton near the poles rather than the tropics?
greater availability of nutrients in northern waters was the reason for higher plankton populations there.
64
Who found the importance of fish year class?
Johannes Hjort
65
What did King Oscar do for marine science?
initiated an international program to study causes of fluctuations in fish stocks
66
Why did Zobell think there were few bacteria in the ocean?
because culturing methods couldn’t cultivate the maine microbes
67
What is an Argo Float? Endurance Array? UNOLS?
Argo (Data on temperature, wind, salinity)
is an international program that collects information from inside the ocean using a fleet of robotic instruments that drift with the ocean currents and move up and down between the surface and a mid-water level
Endurance Array- Water & air temperature, salinity, O2, CO2, Chl a, wave height, currents & wind continuously. A long term moring that collects data.
UNOLS -- University, National Oceanographic Laboratory System is the major source of ship time for oceanographic research in the US.
68
Limnology
limne = lake, pool or swamp + logos = discourse or study
69
Who began limnology?
Francois Alphonse Forel -- Professor of Physiology at University of Lausanne- studied Lake Geneva >30 years
70
More about Forel
- Forel was a physician, but he loved lakes
- Discovered relationships between biology, chemistry and physics in lakes
- He discovered density currents in lakes
- Named the field of “Limnology”
- He explained Seiches, the rhythmic oscillations of lake levels caused by wind blowing in one direction over a lake
71
C. Weisenberg-Lund
recognized importance of experimentation & manipulation of lake water in first decade of 20th century
72
Thieneman & Naumann
Started “International Association for Theoretical and Applied Limnology”, 1922. Tried to classify lakes into different types, but system largely failed because classifications were largely qualitative (and subjective) and too complicated. Created the oligo-eutrophic lake classification system (used today
73
Edward A. Birge
Hired as an instructor in Biology at University Wisconsin 1875
Responsible for botany, zoology, bacteriology, human anatomy, physiology.
Multi disciplinary collaboration of chemists, biologists, physicis
74
Chancey Juday
Professor of Zoology at UW
Multi disciplinary collaboration of chemists, biologists, physicist
helped in the early days of limnology
75
how are Cladocerans (water fleas) related to Brige and Juday?
Both began their work with classic zoological studies on the taxonomy and distribution of a major component of lake planktonic communities, the Cladocerans (water fleas). They soon found, however, that little could be understood about the distribution of these animals in lakes without evaluating a range of physical and chemical properties. This led to investigations of water column thermal structure, distribution of dissolved gases, and light penetration, along with the mechanisms controlling these features.
76
Hattie Bell Merrill
Famous early female Limnologists, Professor U. Wisconsin
| Zooplankton Biologist, shown exploring lakes in South America
77
Ellen Swallow (Richards)
Vassar College 1870, First female student at MIT, one of the founders of the field of ecology
78
Ann Haven Morgan
“Field Book of Ponds and Streams”
| Mayflies, Professor at Mt Holyoke. Later worked on Freshwater Fish
79
Ruth Patrick, Freshwater diatom specialist
Book: The Diatoms of North America
Many Honors : National Metal of Science
ASLO gives Ruth Patrick award yearly. Died age 106!
80
Clifford H. Mortimer
Notable “firsts” in aquatic science:
Use of echo-sounders for sediment exploration in lakes
Recording of sub-surface waves in Loch Ness
Discovery of internal Kelvin waves in Lake Geneva
Discovery of water-level changes and internal waves in Lake Michigan.
81
G. Evelyn Hutchinson
dominated Limnology from about 1940-1980
Yale University: “Treatise on Limnology” (the Bible of Limnology)
Structure and function of lakes reflect the properties of the biota.
Wrote “The Paradox of the Plankton”
82
What was the Paradox? (in lakes)
The paradox is that so many species of phytoplankton could exist in lakes at any one time. According to the theory of competitive exclusion, one species should dominate.
The paradox of the plankton was originally described in 1961 by G. Evelyn Hutchinson, who proposed that the paradox could be resolved by factors such as vertical gradients of light or turbulence, symbiosis or commensalism, differential predation, or constantly changing environmental conditions.[3]
83
Paradox Solved? (plankton in lakes)
More recent work has proposed that the paradox can be resolved by factors such as: chaotic fluid motion;[4] size-selective grazing;[5] spatio-temporal heterogeneity;[6] and environmental fluctuations.[7] More generally, some researchers suggest that ecological and environmental factors continually interact such that the planktonic habitat never reaches an equilibrium for which a single species is favoured
1) All phytoplankton require essentially the same nutrients
2) Classical competition theory states that under ideal (equilibrium) conditions the most effective competitor will displace all others3) If true, lakes and oceans should contain far fewer species
84
Do plankton communities experience
non-equilibrium conditions (e.g., temporal variability)?
Is there unexpected diversity in aquatic space
(e.g., spatial complexity) that allows for niche diversification?
85
Alternative explanations for species diversity
| Bottom-up control
1) Spatial heterogeneity (complexity) - gradients in
limiting resources with patches and fronts, gradients in light
and temperature2) Temporal variability - daily, seasonal and interannual
variation3) Stochastic events - storms, wind and rain
4) Coexistence possible if species differ in abilities to utilize
resources; e.g., macronutrients, micronutrients, light
5) Life-history strategies, meroplankton
86
Alternative explanations for species diversity
Top-down ControlPreferential grazing, prey selection Selective predator whose preferred food
is the most successful competitor among a group of prey species.Competing prey species could co-occur even under equilibrium conditions.
Biological warfare
87
How did Hutchinson have a major influence?
Through writing a comprehensive “Treatise on Limnology”
Through the extraordinary students that he mentored
Through the diversity of research he did on ecology, paleolimnology, and lake chemistry
Studied Linsley Pond in Connecticut
88
Franz Ruttner
“Fundamentals of Limnology” 1963, Translated from German by Frey and Fry 1974. Classic text (the text I used in grad school)
89
Properties of water
Covalent bonds
The oxygen and hydrogen share electrons
The O wants 8 and the H want 2
The hydrogen and oxygen share electrons. Oxygen side is slightly negative and hydrogen slightly positive causing the molecules to be attracted to each other and to be “sticky"
90
Why is it good that water is dipolar?
makes it an excellent solvent for salts and polar organic molecules
Dissolves Positive & negative Charged ions, but Not nonpolar Like oils
91
Physical properties of water? think compression...
Only slightly compressible 4000 m depth (pressure > 400 atm), only 1.8% decrease in volume (varies with temperature)
Pressure varies with depth 1 m3 of pure water = 1 tonne For every 10m of depth, increase of 1 atm
92
water dentistry is a function of what?
tempature
Maximum density of freshwater is at 3.94 degrees
Water cooler than this has lower density. Thus cooler water can be on the surface of a lake and warmer on the bottom.
93
how does saltwater behave as far as density is concerned?
The cooler it is, the denser it is. Also, because of its higher salt content, with a salinity of 35 it freezes at -1.91 C
94
something about heating water one degree
To heat 1 cc of water it takes 1calorie per 1 degree C from 0 to 100C.
it requires a lot of energy to disrupt the hydrogen bonding of water molecules.
Latent heat of evaporation is 540 cal/g
Latent heat of melting 80 cal/g
95
Specific Heat of water is ...
very high (1.0)
96
Water differs from air in being able to hold _____ heat per volume but less oxygen
More
ie The warmer the water, the less the solubility of gass
97
what are four properties of water?
Cohesion, Adhesion, High surface tension, High specific heat, High Heat of vaporization, and the fact that ice floats (Ice is less dense as a solid than liquid water).
98
pH of freshwater
Wide range.
Low pH lakes (0-2) often associated with volcanoes.
Bog lakes with high organic acids are pH 2-6.
Most lakes are 7-9 but some desert lakes saturated with carbonates are 10 or higher
Alkalinity is water’s ability to absorb hydrogen ions when acid is added
99
More on Alkalinity
In the natural environment carbonate alkalinity tends to make up most of the total alkalinity due to the common occurrence and dissolution of carbonate rocks and presence of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Other common natural components that can contribute to alkalinity include borate, hydroxide, phosphate, silicate, nitrate, dissolved ammonia, the conjugate bases of some organic acids and sulfide.
100
Lake nutrient status
Oligotrophic or Eutrophic
101
Oligotrophic
low nutrients, algal/plant biomass, high light transparency, oxygenated to deep water
102
Eutrophic
high nutrients, algal/plant biomass, low light transparency, little or no O2 in deep water
103
what has a large effect on freshwater chemistry and biology?
Variations in geology, soils, vegetation and land-use
104
Material in an aquatic ecosystem can originate...
autochthonous. .. within the aquatic system (e.g. phytoplankton or SAV production)
allocthonous. ..elsewhere in the basin (e.g. leaf litter, bark)
105
Lentic
Pertaining to ‘stationary’ water
e. g. lakes, ponds, river pools
cf. lacustrine -- relating to, formed in, living in, or growing in lakes lacustrine deposits lacustrine faunas.
106
Lotic
Pertaining to ‘flowing’ water
e. g. river and stream channels, straits
cf. riverine ---relating to or situated on a river or riverbank
107
Meromictic lakes
are permanently stratified and surface and bottom waters don’t mix
108
Holomictic Lakes
mix
109
dimictic lake
mixes twice per year
110
A Monomictic lake
mixes just once per year
111
Polymictic Lakes
can mix often, even daily
112
Amictic Lakes
are ice covered and considered holomictic but they don’t mix
113
random lake fact
There are 117 million lakes on Earth and these cover 3.7% of Earth’s land not covered by ice.
114
freshwater facts
- Only about 2.6% of the world’s water volume consists of freshwater
- 97.5% of Earth’s water is saltwater
- Lakes, rivers and wetlands are about 0.3% of total global freshwater!
- 99.7% of freshwater is locked in glaciers, ice caps or deep groundwater pools!!
- <1% of world’s freshwater is accessible for human use!
- This freshwater is very unevenly divided globally
115
rivers account for what precent of fresh water?
2%
116
Littoral
shallow water zone
117
Pelagic
open water zone
118
Photic, Euphotic, Tropogenic zone
water with enough light for net photosynthesis
119
Metalimnion
is zone of rapid temperature change (also called thermocline)
120
Tectonic Basin lake
form from faulting
121
graben
in tectonic basin lakes... A down faulted trough
122
Tilted Fault Block lake
Fault only on one side
123
Oxbow Lakes
From a river meander that is cut off
| think ... from a donut to a cresont
124
Subsistence Lake
Local depression due to earthquakes
125
Kettle Lakes
from big ice chunks left when glacier retreated
126
Moraine lakes
formed by glaciers that scooped out a valley
127
Reverse Drainage Basins
Uplifting forms a dam
128
UpwarpingLakes
Lake Okeechobee in Florida formed from a minor depression in the sea floor (~ 4 m) as the Florida peninsula uplifted from the ocean. Also lake Victoria, East Africa
129
Volcanic Caldera Lakes
Lava flows can also dam a river valley and form a lake
130
Maar Lake
Formed by an explosion of hot magma coming in contact with groundwater
example: Lake Nyos... now vented to remove exses CO2 bc 1700 people died in 1986 when high CO2 (volcanic activity) concentrations rose to the surface as the lake turned over
131
Karst Lake (Karst Topography)
Formed by dissolution of limestone…sink hole
132
Glacial scour lakes
Ice scours a valley then retreats and the basins fill with melt water.
A Cirque (French for Circus) lake forms from glacial morainal deposits.
133
Cryogenic Lake
Formed from permafrost effects. Found in Arctic. Shallow ponds formed inside of an ice wedge polygon of raised soil banks that grows above the permafrost from water seepage through cracks in the ground…10-50 m
134
more ways a lake can form...
Man made Lakes (Reservoirs)
Biogenic Lakes (Buffalo wallows, Beaver Ponds, Bog Lakes)
Bomb Craters (Viet Nam)
Quarries
Lakes formed by wind
Plunge pools under old waterfalls (Falls Lake, WA)
135
Lake Geomorphology ... ie more ways lakes can form bc there are SO MANY
- Stamuki lakes (Ice-dammed rivers)
- Epishelf lakes (Freshwater floating on saltwater in fjords)
- Lakes on sea ice (Rain)
- Lakes under ice (Antarctica)
136
Lake Baikal
Russia 1620 m deep and has an enormous volume of water (23,000 km3)
137
Caspian Sea
is a large salt lake and has a huge volume (436,400 km3)
138
Laurentian Great Lakes
have the greatest continuous mass of water on Earth (245,240 km2)
139
major cations and anions
4 major cations: Ca, Mg, Na, & K
| 4 major anions: HCO3, CO3, SO4 & Cl
140
Soft waters
waters of low salinity and usually derived from acidic igneous rocks
141
Hard waters
contain concentrations of alkaline earth usually from calcareous deposits
142
what does lake salinity depend on?
- Rock dominance (weathering) in watershed
- Atmospheric precipitation
- Evaporation/precipitation ratio
Saline lakes form and persist when outflow of water is restricted, evaporation exceeds inflow, and the inflow is sufficient to sustain a standing body of water
143
Most saline lakes are:
- Dominated by sodium
- Very few are found in which calcium or magnesium are the major cations
- Dominating major anions are highly variable although CL commonly dominates
- Salt can enter lakes from rainfall or by dust
144
Aral Sea
moderately saline
145
Dead Sea is droping becuase
level has been dropping 3ft/yr because most of Jordan River water has been diverted
146
ASLO
Association of Scientists in Limnology and Oceanography (journal)
147
journals
- Advances in Limnology
- Archiv für Limnology
- Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Science
- Freshwater Biology
- Hydrobiologia
- Journal of Limnology
- Journal of Plankton Research
- Proceedings (Verhandlungen) of the International Association of - Theoretical and Applied Limnology
148
Famous Watershed Studies
- Coweeta, North Carolina
| - Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest
149
Limnological Field Stations
- Experimental Lakes Area (Western Ontario, Canada)
- Plön (Germany)
- Windermere (UK)
- Palanza (Italy)
- Vilas County, Wisconsin (USA)
- Yellow Bay on Flathead Lake (Montana)
- Gothic Colorado Rocky Mountain Bio Lab
- Gull Lake (Hickory Corners, Michigan)
- Center for Limnology on Lake Mendota, Madison, WI
- Great Lakes Water Institute (WI)
150
water wars -- example in iran
In Iran farmers in one area destroyed a water pump station that pumped water to the city of Yazd.
151
The Aral Sea dried up ...
up completely in August 2014. First time in 600 years
By 2025, 1.8 billion people will live in countries where water is scarce and 2/3 of the world’s population will live where there isn’t enough clean water
Now, 750 million people do not have access to safe drinking water
152
Freshwater issues
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Acid rain
Nutrient Pollution (Eutrophication)
Toxic chemicals
Fish (commercial and recreational fishing)
Invasive species and their control
Endocrine Disruptors
Need for clean drinking water
Toxic algal blooms
Agriculture vs salmon & other fish
Microplastic/fiber pollution
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