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historic movements Flashcards

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1
Q

rationalism

A 
•definition: truth is based on thinking, not on the information from the senses; humans have an innate knowledge that can be recovered through deductive reasoning. Furthermore, knowledge is obtained by means of reasoning. Opposes to Empiricism 
•year:
•major players: 
_socrates
_plato
_descartes
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2
Q

empiricism

A 
•definition: knowledge is obtained by means of perceptual experiences, usually involves the idea of associations between ideas to combine the the individual perceptions, also emphasis on inductive reasoning. Opposes to Rationalism
•year: 1600
•major players:
_(precursor) Bacon
_Locke (father)
_Berkeley
_Hume
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3
Q

scientific revolution

A

•definition: series of events that marked the emergence of modern science during the early modern period, when developments in mathematics, physics, astronomy, biology (including human anatomy) and chemistry transformed the views of society about nature.
changes:
_demographic changes
_no pressure from church or authority
_new inventions (clock, compass, telescope, printing
_existence of universities
_enrichment from Greek/Arab civilizations
it lasted because
_absence of disaster
_no religious pressure
_more universities established learned societies

•year: 1543 (copernicus publication)
•major players:
_bruno
_copernicus
_galileo
_kepler
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4
Q

mind-body problem

A

•definition: issue on how the mind is related to the brain, three main views
1. dualism (mind and brain are two independent entities)
2. materialism (mind is a by-product of the biological workings of the brain)
3. functionalism (mind is realized in the brain, but the info can be copied to another machine with the same structure
•year: 1600
•major players:
_descartes

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5
Q

dualism & monism

A 
•definition: 
_dualism: mind is immaterial and completely independent of the body (Descartes)
•year: 1600
•major players:
descartes (dualism)
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6
Q

experimental psychology

A

•definition: the branch of psychology concerned with the scientific investigation of the responses of individuals to stimuli in controlled situations
Needs:
_empiricism
_testability
_determinism (assumption that any state of an object or event is determined by prior states)
_parsimony (the search for simplicity)
_Operational definition (Tolman & Hull -
implies that a concept be defined in terms of concrete, observable procedures. Experimental psychologists attempt to define currently unobservable phenomena, such as mental events, by connecting them to observations by chains of reasoning)
•year: 1800
•major players:
_Wundt
_Fechner
_Weber
_Würzburg School
_Peirce

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7
Q

enlightenment

A
  • definition: autonomous thinking and observation became advocated as the primary sources of knowledge, rather than reliance on authority
  • year: 1700
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8
Q

evolution theory

A 
•definition: Evolution is change in the heritable characteristics of biological populations over successive generations. These characteristics are the expressions of genes that are passed on from parent to offspring during reproduction
_misconceptions
-no direction in genetic changes
-organisms get better or stronger
•year: 1800
•major players:
_Darwin 
_Galton
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9
Q

eugenics

A

•definition: social philosophy claiming that the fate of a nation can be improved by selective breeding of the inhabitants.
It can be positive/negative
positive: favouring could take the form of facilitating the reproduction of some—those with desirable traits
negative:it could take the form of inhibiting the reproduction of others—those with undesirable traits.
•year: 1883
•major players:
_influenced by Darwin’s ideas
_Galton

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10
Q

behaviorism

A 
•definition: movement in psychology arguing that observable behaviors are the most important aspect of human functioning to be understood, denies to various extents the relevance of information processing going on in the mind, particularly strong in the USA in the first half of 1900
•year: 1913 (behaviorist manifesto) 
•major players:
_influenced by Pavlov
_Watson  (father)
_Hull
_Skinner 
_Tolman
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11
Q

introspection

A
  • definition: Introspection is the examination of one’s own conscious thoughts and feelings. In psychology, the process of introspection relies exclusively on observation of one’s mental state
  • major players:
support:
_Titchnener
_Freud
_Wundt
_Wolff
_James

against:
_Comte
_Kant

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12
Q

inductive reasoning

A

•definition: form of reasoning in which one starts from observations and tries to reach general conclusions on the basis of convergences in the observations; is needed in science to turn observed phenomena into scientific laws, but does not guarantee that the conclusions are true
_conclusion drawn from a series of convergent observations
_conclusions are not necessarily true
_used to:
1.generalize from a limited number of observations to a general conclusion
2. to detect correlations between events
3.to make causal inferences
4. to bring order to our many expreiences by noticing SIMILARITIES and CORRELATIONS between events in daily life
5. work out explanations for observed phenomena in science
•important for:
empiricism
•major players:
_bacon
_Locke
_Berkeley
_Hume
_Kant

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13
Q

deductive reasoning

A

•definition: form of reasoning in which one starts from a number of indisputable premises from which new, true conclusions can be drawn if the rules of logic are followed
_used in science to formulate hypotheses on the basis of existing theories , so that theories can be tested
_syllogisms (aristotle)
•important for:
_rationalism: humans have an innate knowledge that can be recovered through deductive reasoning - reality can be known by reasoning from innate knowledge (plato and descartes)
•major players:
_plato
_aristotle
_descartes
_Galilei & Newton convince audience that new way of scientific thinking is close to traditional deductive reasoning

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14
Q

Ancient Egypt contributions

A

Geometry (archimedes - greek) & calendar

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15
Q

Ancient Mesopotamia contributions

A

Math & astronomy (Ptolemy- roman - agrees with aristotle)

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16
Q

Ancient Greece contributions

A

Philosophy

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17
Q

Dark Ages

A

name given in the Renaissance to the middle Ages, to refer to the lack of independent and scientific thinking in that age

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18
Q

Renaissance

A

•definition: cultural movement based on a rediscovery and imitation of the classical Greek
_growing interest in behavioral consequences of brain injury and in reflexes
and roman civilizations
•year: 1300-1600
•major players:
_influenced by Galton

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19
Q

biases in history writing

A

_centered too much on people
_matthew effect (give more credit to well-known scientists than they deserve
_hindsight bias - assume they know more than they actually did
_ethnocentrisim
_zeitgeist - time was right for a certain discovery - discovery didn’t originate from a single genius but from a much wider development leading to the discovery
_history review are summaries of summaries

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20
Q

geocentric vs heliocentric universe

A 
geocentric
_aristotle
_ptolemy - criticises movement of Aristotelian stars - adds epicycles
heliocentric
_bruno
_copericus
_galilei (telescope)
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21
Q

experimental history

A

Method introduced by Bacon in which the natural philosopher extracts the truth from nature by active manipulation and examining the consequences of intervention

22
Q

industrial revolution

A
  • definition: socioeconomic and cultural changes caused by the invention of machines; involved, among other things, the replacement of labor of peasants and craftsmen by mass production in factories and the resulting massive relocation from the countryside to the towns
  • year: 1800
  • major players:
23
Q

positivism

A

•definition: view that authentic knowledge can only be obtained by means of the scientific method; saw religion and philosophy as inferior forms of explanation
•year: 1800
•major players:
_Comte

24
Q

romantic movement

A
  • definition: movement that reacted against the mechanistic world view and the emphasis of reason preached by Enlightenment; it saw the universe as a changing organism and stressed everything that deviated from rationalism: the individual, the irrational, the imaginative, the emotional, the natural and the transcendental.
  • year: 1700-1800
  • major players:
25
Q

individualisation

A 
•definition:  trend in society towards looser social relations and greater focus by individuals on themselves than on the groups they belong to
why?
_increased complexity of society
_increased control by the state
_individuality promoted by Christianity 
_mirrors, books and letters
•year: 1900-2000
•major players:
26
Q

idealism

A 
view within philosophy that human knowledge is a construction of the mind and does not necessarily correspond to an outside world, the truth of knowledge depends on the coherence with the rest of the knowledge in the social group. Opposes to realism 
•year: 1700
•major players: 
_Berkeley 
_Hume
_Kant
27
Q

realism

A

view within philosophy that human knowledge tries to reveal real properties of the outside world, the truth of knowledge is determined by the correspondence of the knowledge with the real world. Opposes to Idealism
•year: 1800
•major players:
_hobbes

28
Q

functionalism

A

•definition: approach in early american psychoogy research, that examined the practical functions of the human mind inspired by the evolutionary theory
•year: 1800-1900
•major players:
_James

29
Q

structuralism

A 
•definition: approach to psychology, consisting of trying to discover the structure of the human mind by means of introspection
•year: 1800-1900
•major players: 
_Titchener
_Lacan
30
Q

Gestalt psychology

A

•definition: group of psychologists who argued that the human mind could not be understood by breaking down the experiences into their constituent elements, perception is more than the sensation of stimuli, it involves organisation
•year: 1800-1900
•major players:
_Titchener

31
Q

Phrenology, Mesmerism & Spiritualism

A

•definition:
_mesmerism: Mesmerism is the act of non-verbally using a trance-like state and shifting the energy field within a client. Cure patients by restoring their animal magnetism
_Spiritualism: spirits of the dead could be contacted by mediums
•year: 1800-1900
•major players:
_Gall
_Mesmer

32
Q

Scepticism

A

•definition: philosophical view that does not deny the existence of a physical reality, but denies that humans can have reliable knowledge of it
•year: 300 BC
•major players:
_Pyrrho

33
Q

logical positivism

A

•definition: philosophical movement claiming that philosophy should stop thinking about metaphysics, and instead try to understand the essence of the scientific approach
_central tenet was the verification principle - a proposition is meaningful only if it can be verified as true or false - with respect to science states that a proposition is scientific only if it can be verified trough objective, value-free observation
_full of objections (e.g. doesn’t solve induction problem, scientific theories vary, verifiable observations do not guarantee a correct understanding)
•year: 1929 manifesto
•major players:
_vienna circle

34
Q

pragmatism

A

•description: view within philosophy that human knowledge is information about how to cope with the world; the truth of knowledge depends on the success one has in engaging with the world
•year: end of 1800
•major players:
_Peirce, James & Dewey (fathers)

35
Q

humanistic psychology

A

•description: opposed to behaviorism and psychoanalysis - stressed that people are human, inherently positive, endowed with free will and living within a socio-cultural context
•year: 1900
•major players:
_Maslow

36
Q

Psychoanalysis major players

A 
_Freud
_Erikson 
_Lacan
_Adler 
_Breuer
37
Q

essential differences between aristotle - galileo & descartes

A

Aristotle: The world is as we perceive it. There is no gap
between appearance and reality. What you observe is
what there is.
Galileo, Descartes: There is an immense gap between
reality and appearance. Reality hides behind the
appearances.

38
Q

how can we know hidden world (galileo, descartes, bacon)

A

Galileo and Descartes: by abstract mathematical
thinking = mathematical (or classical) sciences  Bacon: by forcing nature to reveal her secrets by
torturing her and putting her on the rack of the
experiment = experimental (or Baconian) sciences  Both Platonian: our perception is a mere reflection of
the true nature of things  Important: reject both physics and method of Aristotle

39
Q

galileo insights

A 
Galileo created a domain that: 
 Is independent of human beings 
 Exists objectively
 Can be analysed in smaller invisible elements 
 Obeys deterministic laws
 Is fit for the mathematical approach
40
Q

scientific revolution & psychology

A

New way of explaining: Mechanism
 Formerly universe = “giant living organism striving
towards a goal”, now “huge machine working according to pure mechanical principles”
 If physics only deals with matter, how will we account for subjective experience?
 Color, smell, taste, pain…
 Galileo: These are not part of the natural science, as they are subjective
 Physics does not deal with the subjective

41
Q

descartes problems

A 
Epistemological problem:
Why should we believe
modern science and reject
Aristotle? 
 Mind body (= ontological)
problem: What to do with the
heterogeneous residual
category of subjective experience of color, odor, taste etc.?
42
Q

matter & mind for descartes

A 
Matter =
 Extension in space
 Infinitely divisible
 Res extensa
 Mechanism
 Laws of nature
 Determinism
Mind:
 Not extended in space
 Not divisible (Unity) 
 Res cogitans 
 Reason and language
 Not determined (free will)
43
Q

consciousness levels

A 
Any conscious state has three aspects/ levels:
FUNCTIONAL
State of information processing that
allows subsequent behavior/ processing
PHYSICAL
“Stuff’ the state is made of, e.g.
Neural firing, electrical impulses
PHENOMENAL 
What the state feels like,
‘What it is like to be’ in that state
44
Q

MONISM VS DUALISM

A

Monism: it’s all just the same (ontological) ‘stuff’
Dualism: phenomenal is non-physical (ontological) ‘stuff’

45
Q

INTERACTION IN THE BRAIN

A

Where and how can brain interact with body?
 Descartes: pineal gland (small singular
structure on bottom of brain)
 Mind steers particles there to influence body
 Direction not yet vectorized (no magnitude
yet)
 So, no energy needed to change direction of
particles
 Mind metaphorically as ping-pong bat  When later direction was vectorized this stimulated parallelism

46
Q

PROBLEM OF INTERACTION IN M-B PROBLEM

A

Implications: Mind-body problem: no energetic
interactionism
 If mind influences matter, we should have a surplus of
energy in the body
 No case of such ‘creation’ of energy
 Deadly for interactionist dualism a la Descartes
 Boost for materialism (often crude forms), but also
stimulates parallelist’ solutions to mind-body problem

47
Q

Occasionalism & Parallelism

A

Reaction to interactionism
 Gottfried Leibniz - 1646-1716
 Parallelism of mind and matter  Pre-established harmony
 God created two chains of events occurring
simultaneously
 Simile of the two clocks  No interaction, still always give exactly same time
 Became more popular as interactionism became
implausible
 In 19th century Wilhelm Wundt, Founder of
experimental psychology

48
Q

Idealism

A 
Early representative Bishop Berkeley, 17th
century
 Combines theory of knowledge and notion of
body mind problem
 Esse est percipi 
 Experience is all there is 
 We have no access to a world behind
sensations 
 We still would only have sensations 
 Whole world is mental
49
Q

Materialism

A

Old style
 Radical inheritance of Descartes
 Materialism and atheism
 Problem of being an atheist
 One substance only
 Definition of perfect substance forbids that there are 2
 But what is this one substance?  Panpsychism or materialism?

50
Q

main ideas on M-B interaction

A

 Materialism (or what we now call neuroscience)
 Dualism: Cartesian dualism (Brain and mental
states are different substances) and Property
dualism (There are no different substances but
different properties)
 Neutral monism (Ernst Mach, William James,
Bertrand Russel, David Chalmers…)
 Mysterianism: We do not understand relation and
we never will

History and foundations of psychology (2 decks)

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