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Histology > Histology I Final > Flashcards

Histology I Final Flashcards

1
Q

<p>Topic 1: LM

| First build?</p>

A

<p>1590</p>

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2
Q

<p>Topic 1: What did the LM first led to?</p>

A

<p>1st description of cells: Swann an Schleiden</p>

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3
Q

<p>Topic 1: What are the Mechanical parts?</p>

A

<p>Base, Stage, Specimen Stage, Movable holder, tube, Macrometer (course focus) and Micrometer (fine focus)
</p>

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4
Q

<p>Topic 1: What is the base of stability?</p>

A

<p>Illumination system (mirror,lamp+condenser)

| Stage holds everything else</p>

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5
Q

<p>Topic 1: What does the reflecting prism do?</p>

A

<p>Puts light beam through the specimen</p>

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6
Q

<p>Topic 1: What does the Ocular lens do?</p>

A

<p>It is movable to fit eye line of the user</p>

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7
Q

<p>Topic 1: What does the Ocular and objective lens do?</p>

A

<p>Produces an enlarged reverse image</p>

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8
Q

<p>Topic 1: What is the most important lens in the objective lens?</p>

A

<p>Plan-convex front lens</p>

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9
Q

<p>Topic 1: What does APO stand for?</p>

A

<p>Apochromate lens</p>

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10
Q

<p>Topic 1: What does HI stand for?</p>

A

<p>Immersion objective</p>

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11
Q

<p>Topic 1: What does PH stand for?</p>

A

<p>Phase constrast objective</p>

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12
Q

<p>Topic 1: What is the magnification for the eyepiece?</p>

A

<p>5-25X (Objective higher)</p>

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13
Q

<p>Topic 1: What is the total magnification?</p>

A

<p>Eyepiece x Objective</p>

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14
Q

<p>Topic 1: What is the resolution(Ernst Abbe´s formula)?</p>

A 
<p>D=0,6λ/Nsinα
D= resolution
Lambda = Wavelength
N= refraction index
α= Apperture angle of lens

Smaller D=More details
Sin α = Always smaller than 1</p>

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15
Q

Topic 2: Special Microscope

Which types of sp. microscopes exists?

A 
Stereomicroscope
Dark Field Microscope
Phase Contrast
Nomarksy´s Interference
Polarization Microscope
Fluoressence Microscope
Confocal scanning microscope
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16
Q

<p>Topic 3: Preparation of tissue LM

| Which stages are there?</p>

A 
<p>Collection of samples
Fixation
Rinsing
Embedding
Sectioning
Staining</p>
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17
Q

<p>Topic 3: Preparation of tissue LM

| Collection of samples?</p>

A

<p>Taken immediately, no more than 1cm</p>

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18
Q

<p>Topic 3: Preparation of tissue LM

| Fixation?</p>

A

<p>In living organisms: does so that the samle does not hardened, shrinks, swells etc.

USE: Aldehydes-alcohol-heavy metal salts-acids(normally buffers)- FORMALDEHYD common</p>

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19
Q

<p>Topic 3: Preparation of tissue LM

| Rinsing?</p>

A

<p>Flow with tap water/ solvent (alcohol ect) ready for staining</p>

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20
Q

<p>Topic 3: Preparation of tissue LM

| Embedding?</p>

A

<p>Freeze or use dehydration (stronger alcohol %) and then set PARAFFIN WAX</p>

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21
Q

Topic 3: Preparation of tissue LM

Sectioning?

A

Microtome (3-20 micrometer sections)- mounted of glass slide

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22
Q

<p>Topic 3: Preparation of tissue LM

| Staining?</p>

A

<p>Alows observation of usually colorless sections- PARAFFIN removed with XYLENE. Then apply staining, usually HAEMATOXYLIN-EOSIN</p>

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23
Q

<p>Topic 3: Preparation of tissue LM

| Other staining types?</p>

A

<p>Alcian Blue: Polysaccharides blue
Azan: Collagen fibres blue, rest red
PAS: Polysaccharides purple to red
Reorcin-Fuchsin: Elastic fibres blueish-black
Silver impregnation: Reticular fibers Dark brown/Black
Schmorl: Bone yellow to brown</p>

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24
Q

<p>Topic 4: Immunochemistry</p>

A

<p>Se drawing</p>

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25
Q

<p>Topic 5: The EM

| TEM?</p>

A 
<p>Transitory Electron Microscope
Lightsource: Electron gun
Electomagnetic lenses
Immage appears on Fluorescent screen 
UNDER VACUM --> No live subjects

E- forms a superheated filament accelerated by the anode and then mad into a parallel beam thorough a wenhelt cylinder.
Specimen:
- Thin! 60-90 nanometre
- Contrasted with heavy metals (dark spot during scattering)

</p>

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26
Q

Topic 5: The EM

SEM?

A

Scanning EM.
For observating surface structures (thicker than TEM)
Large vacum chamber - no limit on specimen size
Short column : only 3 focusing lenses
Electrons deflected by the specimen - turned into a electric signal.
Turned into light and produce img on fluorescent screen

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27
Q

<p>Topic 6: Preparation of tissues for EM</p>

A

<p>- Perfusion is the preferred method of fixation. (injection of fixative solution into heart) in living animals

- Vibratome sections can be cut - contrasted with OSMIUM TETROXIDE
- Dehydrated: 70% ethanol, Contrasted with URANYL ACETATE
- Placed into: Artificial resins into small capsules, left to set couple of days.
- Sectioning: Ultrathin! 60-90nm mounted on copper grid - contrasted with LEAD NITRATE.</p>

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28
Q

<p>Topic 7: Epithelial tissues and classification

| Types of epithelia?</p>

A 
<p>Surface EP.
Secretory EP.
Sensory EP.
Pigment EP
</p>
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29
Q

<p>Topic 7: Epithelial tissues and classification?

| Surface EP?</p>

A

<p>- Covers outer and inner surf. of body.

- Build up by cells closely attached forming layers over basal lamina.
- Act as protection and interfaces</p>

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30
Q

<p>Topic 7: Epithelial tissues and classification

| Secretory EP?</p>

A

<p>- Gland form surf.ep. forming "invaginations" into underlaying CT.
- For secretion</p>

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31
Q

Topic 7: Epithelial tissues and classification

Classification surface epithelia?

A
  • Simple= 1 layer:
    • Squamous
    • Cuboidal
    • Collumnar
  • Pseudo stratified=Dif. nuclei levels + stereo cilia
  • Transitory= Urothelium- stretchy, basal, piriform + umbrella
  • Stratified = Several layers
    - Keratinized
    - Non-keratinized
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32
Q

Topic 11: Secretory epithelia: Classification of glands:

Classificaton?

A
  • Nr. of cells
    • Unicellular
    • Multicellular
  • Position:
    • Intra/endoepithelial
    • Extra/Exoepithelial
  • Way of transport of the secretion:
    • With ducts onto a surf: Exocrine
    • Wihout ducts into the bloodstr: Endocrine
  • Morphology of acini:
    • Acinar
    • Tubular
    • Tuboloacinar
  • Mode of secretion:
    • Apocrine
    • Merocrine
    • Holocrine
  • Type of secretory product:
    • Serous
    • Mucous
    • Seromucous
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33
Q

<p>Topic 14: Connective Tissues definition and classification
Definition?</p>

A

<p>-Comes from Mesenchyme of embryo.
- Reservoir for hormones
-Derives from mesoderm:
Function:
- Spacefilling
- Structural support for organs/other tissues
- Metabollic support
- Contains blood vessels: mediates exchange of nutrients/waste etc between blood vessels and tissues.
- Densely innervated - Nerve endings and secretorycells may be present in the tissue</p>

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34
Q

<p>Topic 8: The epithelial cell: the polarity of the epithelial cell
Layers?</p>

A

<p>•Apical – faces compartment, can contain microvilli or cilia (respiration).
•Lateral – neighbors other cells, membranes can fuse to increase absorbancy.
•Basal – faces basal lamina, can contain mitochondria-filled basal structures.</p>

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35
Q

<p>Topic 14: Connective Tissues definition and classification:
Embryonic?</p>

A

<p>Embryonic:

- Mesenchyme
- Gelatinous connective
- Choroid tissue</p>

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36
Q

<p>Topic 8: The epithelial cell: the polarity of the epithelial cell
Connections? +occurance?</p>

A

<p>- Tight junctions: between cells forming impermeable/semi-permeable barriers between cells.
- Gap-junctions (with Connexons) allow passage of electrolytes and other molecules between cells.
Seen in epithelial, cardiac, smooth muscle, nervous, and certain connective tissue.
-Belt Desmosome (Macula adherens) hold cells together with filaments. Prevent tearing.
</p>

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37
Q

<p>Topic 15 - Connective Tissues: Extracellular matrix.

| Morphology?</p>

A 
<p>Ground substance:
   - Highly hydrated gel, with embedded cells and fibers 
Molecular components:
   - Proteoglycan
   - Chondroitin sulphate
   - Keratone sulphate
   - Dermatan sulphate
   - Hyaluronic acid 
</p>
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38
Q
  1. Surface epithelia: Simple and pseudostratified epithelia:

Simple squamous? (morphology, function, occurance)

A
  • Thinnest tissue - allows transport across membranes in lungs and capillaries.
  • Secretes fluid in serous membranes, lines cardiovascular system, covers organs and forms glomerular capsules in kidney.
  • Occurance:Pulmonary alveoli, kidney, rete testis, the middle ear, endothelium and serous membranes.
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39
Q
  1. Surface epithelia: Simple and pseudostratified epithelia:

Simple cuboidal? (morphology, function, occurance)

A
  • Rounded nuclei.
  • Forms ducts, tubules, and secretory cells in exocrine glands and the kidney.
  • Occurance: thyroid gland, surface of ovary, brain, eye, glands and kidney tubules.
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40
Q
  1. Surface epithelia: Simple and pseudostratified epithelia:

Simple columnar? (morphology, function, occurance)

A
  • Cell nuclei lie toward basal surface.
  • Ciliated or non-ciliated
  • Functions: absorb digested nutrients, secrete mucous, enzymes and other substances.
  • Occurance: digestive tracts, glands, uterus and oviduts in human, pulmonary bronchi, paranasal sinuses and spinal cord.
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41
Q
  1. Surface epithelia: Simple and pseudostratified epithelia:

Transitional pseudostratified epithelium?

A
  • 3-5 cells thick

* Lines the urinary tracts where it provides stretchability

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42
Q

<p>9. Surface epithelia: Simple and pseudostratified epithelia:
Occurance of pseudostratified columnar epithelia</p>

A

<p>The male urethra, epidymis, trachea, primary bronchi, the auditory tube, parts of the tympanic cavity and lacrimal sac.</p>

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43
Q

<p>Topic 17 - Embryonic Connective and Supportive Tissue:

| Mesenchyme?</p>

A 
<p>3D network
Irregular cells
Lots of ground substance(no fibers)
Gives rise to adult CT
</p>
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44
Q

<p>12. Secretory epithelia: Modes of secretion

| Types of secretion? Explain.</p>

A

<p>•Merocrine: Secretory cell intact. Product is small granules. Exocytosis, due to fusing with the plasma lemma. Most common.
•Apocrine: Plasma lemma surrounds a large secretory granule and pinches off from cell apex. Enters lumen as a ‘secretory drop’ and leaves rest of plasma lemma intact.
•Holocrine: Secretory cell fills with lipid granules. Cell moves to gland duct. Organelles degenerate. Cell dies, membrane breaks down, and secretum empties into duct.</p>

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45
Q

<p>12. Secretory epithelia: Modes of secretion

| Occurance?</p>

A

<p>•Merocrine: pancreas
•Apocrine: sweat and mammary
•Holocrine: sabecous</p>

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46
Q

<p>Topic 15 - Connective Tissues: Extracellular matrix.

| Elastic fibers?</p>

A

<p>Very elastic

| Synthesized in RER of fibroblasts</p>

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47
Q

<p>10. Surface epithelia: stratified epithelia

| Types of tissue? And their cell layers?</p>

A

<p>-Stratified squamous - non-keratinized:
• Stratum germinativum – columnar cell layer
• Stratum spinosum – cuboidal polygon cell layers
• Stratum planocellulare – fusiform or flattened cells.
-Stratified squamous - keratinized epithelium
• Stratum germinativum – columnar cell layer
• Stratum spinosum – cuboidal polygon cell
• Stratum granulosum – fusiform cells with keratohyalin granules.
• Stratum lucidum – flattened layer with eleidin
• Stratum corneum – dead cell layer
-Stratified cuboidal epithelium: two rows of cuboidal cells
-Stratified columnar epithelium: stacked columnar cells</p>

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48
Q

<p>10. Surface epithelia: stratified epithelia

| Occurance?</p>

A

<p>-Stratified squamous: the cornea and internal body surfaces (esophagus)

- Stratified squamous: skin, and beginning and end of gastrointestinal tract
- Stratified cuboidal epithelium: Very rare. In sweat gland ducts.
- Stratified columnar: large excretory ducts, larynx, and the cavernous urethra.</p>

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49
Q

<p>Topic 18 - Adult CT types

| Reticular CT?</p>

A

<p>Forms stoma of all lymph organs
Made up for stellate reticular cells+fibers
</p>

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50
Q

<p>Topic 19 - Blood as a Connective tissue: Plasma and cellular components
Plasma</p>

A

<p>- CT with cells and fluid + Intercellular matrix = Plasma
- Specialized cells from Bone marrow suspends in plasma.
- Provides nutrients and Oxygen
- Removes waste and CO2 to relevant organs
- Volume by body weight:
8-11% in large domestics
6-7% in lab animals (common)
</p>

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51
Q

<p>Topic 19 - Blood as a Connective tissue: Plasma and cellular components
ECM?</p>

A

<p>ECM = Plasma
91-92% Water
8-9% Solute (ions, electrolytes, proteins)
Fibers = Fibrinogen</p>

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52
Q

<p>Topic 19 - Blood as a Connective tissue: Plasma and cellular components
Prep for light microscope study?</p>

A

<p>1 drop on a slide, air dry
Stain with Giemsa
Fixed in methanol
Assess general health </p>

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53
Q

<p>Topic 16 - Connective Tissues: Cell type of CT

| Free cells?</p>

A 
<p>Macrophages
Mast cells
Plasma cells
Melanocytes
OTHERS (Sometimes):
Lymphocytes
Monocytes
Granulocytes
</p>
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54
Q

<p>12. Secretory epithelia: Modes of secretion

| Types of secretion? Explain.</p>

A

<p>• Merocrine: Secretory cell intact. Product is small granules. Exocytosis, due to fusing with the plasma lemma. Most common.
• Apocrine: Plasma lemma surrounds a large secretory granule and pinches off from cell apex. Enters lumen as a ‘secretory drop’ and leaves rest of plasma lemma intact.
• Holocrine: Secretory cell fills with lipid granules. Cell moves to gland duct. Organelles degenerate. Cell dies, membrane breaks down, and secretum empties into duct.</p>

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55
Q

<p>12. Secretory epithelia: Modes of secretion

| Occurance?</p>

A

<p>• Merocrine: pancreas
• Apocrine: sweat and mammary
• Holocrine: sabecous</p>

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56
Q

<p>13. Secretory epithelia: Serous, mucous and seromucous acini
Serous acini? (composed of? morphology? produces? occurance?)</p>

A

<p>Composed of acini with narrow lumen.
Round basal nuclei. Cytoplasm is basophilic.
Produce enzymes.
Occures in pancreas</p>

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57
Q

<p>13. Secretory epithelia: Serous, mucous and seromucous acini
Mucous acini? (composed of? morphology? produces? occurance?)</p>

A

<p>Composed of acini with wide lumen.
Secretory cells have flattened basal nuclei. Poor stained cytoplasm.
Produce mucopolysaccharides.
Occures in eosephagus.</p>

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58
Q

<p>13. Secretory epithelia: Serous, mucous and seromucous acini
Seromucous acini? (composed of? morphology? produces? occurance?)</p>

A

<p>Mucous acini surrounded by crescent serous cells.

| Occures in submandibular.</p>

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59
Q

<p>21. Blood: granulocytes and agranulocytes

| Eosinophils - Morphology, originate from, lasts, types, function?</p>

A

<p>•Morphology: bilobed nuclei, granules stain bright red. Size: 10-12 mm.
•From red bone marrow and last 8-12 days
•Specific granule crystal structure varies between species. •Control allergic reactions, phagocytose, and defend against parasitic worms. </p>

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60
Q

<p>Topic 17 - Embryonic Connective and Supportive Tissue:

| Mesenchyme?</p>

A 
<p>3D network
Irregular cells
Lots of ground substance(no fibers)
Gives rise to adult CT
</p>
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61
Q

<p>21. Blood: granulocytes and agranulocytes

| Lymphocytes - Morphology, originate from, types, function?</p>

A

<p>•Large nucleus with thin cytoplasmic rim. Size: 7-12 mm (large-medium-small)
•From the red bone marrow
•Develop into B- and T- lymphocytes
•Function: provide immunity. </p>

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62
Q

<p>21. Blood: granulocytes and agranulocytes

| Monocytes - Morphology, originate from, function?</p>

A

<p>•Large kidney-shaped nuclei. Size: up to 17 mm
•From red bone marrow
•Circulate blood for a couple days before entering the CT and transform to macrophage. </p>

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63
Q

<p>19. The blood as connective tisse: plasma and cellular components
What is the plasma and it´s action?</p>

A

<p>A fluid connective tissue that carries nutrients and oxygen while transporting waste products to excretory organs and CO2 to lungs. </p>

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64
Q

<p>19. The blood as connective tisse: plasma and cellular components
Cellular components?</p>

A

<p>(blood corpuscles)

- Erythrocytes
- Platelets (thrombocytes)
- Leukocytes (granulocytes and agranulocytes).</p>

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65
Q

<p>19. The blood as connective tisse: plasma and cellular components
ECM?</p>

A

<p>Plasma: majority water, with inorganic (ions, electrolytes) and organic (proteins, glucose, lipids, etc) solutes.
Fibers: fibrinogen dissolved in plasma (fibrin), for clotting.</p>

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66
Q

<p>20. Blood: erythrocytes and platelets (morphology and function)
Cell shape?</p>

A

<p>Maintained by spectrin at internal surface of membrane.
•Non-nucleated and biconcave: dogs, cows, and sheep.
•Shallow concavity: horse and cat.
•Flat: pigs and goats. </p>

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67
Q

<p>20. Blood: erythrocytes and platelets (morphology and function)
Origin and lifespan?</p>

A

<p>Red bone marrow. Last 4 months, destroyed in spleen.

| </p>

68
Q

<p>Topic 18 - Adult CT types</p>

A 
<p>Loose CT
Dense CT
   - Regular
   - Irregular
Reticular CT
White/Brown Adipose
</p>
69
Q

<p>Topic 18 - Adult CT types

| Loose CT</p>

A

<p>- Most frequent
-Cells + fibres separated by ground subst.
- All 3 fibers present
- Present beneath epithelia, around blood vessels etc.
- For support and repair (defense ect.)
</p>

70
Q

<p>Topic 18 - Adult CT types

| Dense CT</p>

A 
<p>Dense regular:
   - Regular pattern
   - In ligaments and tendons
Dense Irregular:
- Random pattern
- Fibrocytes and fibroblasts very common
- Collagen bundles
- In muscles fascia</p>
71
Q

<p>Topic 18 - Adult CT types

| Adipose CT?</p>

A 
<p>White Adipose
 - Uniocular adipocytes
 - Collagen
 - Reticular fibers
 - For thermal insulation
 - Energy stores
 - Hormone production (Leptin)
Brown Adipose
 - Multiocular adipocytes 
 - Collagen
 - Reticular fibers
 - For non-shivering thermogenesis
 - Occurs in newborns/rodents/Hibernating species
</p>
72
Q

<p>20. Blood: erythrocytes and platelets (morphology and function)
Fine structure of erythrocytes?</p>

A

<p>Mature erythrocytes lack nucleus and cell organelles. Contains hemoglobin, some enzymes, and electrolytes in water. </p>

73
Q

<p>20. Blood: erythrocytes and platelets (morphology and function)
Abnormalities of erythrocytes?</p>

A

<p>•Poikilocytosis: variation in shape
•Rouleaux formation: erythrocytes adhering to one another, forming chains.
•Howell-Jolly bodies: small, round, pyknotic DNA fragments
•Reticulocyte: immature red blood cells with residual ribosomes.</p>

74
Q

<p>20. Blood: erythrocytes and platelets (morphology and function)
Morphology of platelets?</p>

A

<p>Colorless anucleate corpuscles, thin biconvex discs.

| Size: 2-3 mm.</p>

75
Q

<p>20. Blood: erythrocytes and platelets (morphology and function)
Function of platelets?</p>

A

<p>Provide blood clotting. (Thromboplastin transforms prothrombin into thrombin, and thrombin transforms fibrinogen into fibrin). </p>

76
Q

<p>21. Blood: granulocytes and agranulocytes

| Type of granulocytes and agranulocytes?</p>

A 
<p>Granulocytes are polymorphonuclear.
-Neutrophils
-Eosinophils
-Basophils
Agranulocytes are mononuclear?
-Monocytes
-Lymphocytes</p>
77
Q

<p>21. Blood: granulocytes and agranulocytes

| Neutrophils - Morphology, originate from, lasts, types, function?</p>

A

<p>•Most common.
•From red bone marrow and last 7-8 hours
•Most segmented nuclei. Size: 10-12 mm. Moderately stained granules
•Specific (lysozyme, lactoferritin alkaline phosphatase) or azurophilic (lysosomal enzymes such as peroxidase)
•Phagocytose (microphages)</p>

78
Q

<p>21. Blood: granulocytes and agranulocytes

| Eosinophils - Morphology, originate from, lasts, types, function?</p>

A

<p>•Morphology: bilobed nuclei, granules stain bright red. Size: 10-12 mm.
•From red bone marrow and last 8-12 days
•Specific granule crystal structure varies between species. •Control allergic reactions, phagocytose, and defend against parasitic worms. </p>

79
Q

<p>Topic 19 - Blood as a Connective tissue: Plasma and cellular components
Plasma</p>

A

<p>- Specialized cells from Bone marrow suspends in plasma.
- Provides nutrients and Oxygen
- Removes waste and CO2 to relevant organs
- Volume by body weight:
8-11% in large domestics
6-7% in lab animals (common)
</p>

80
Q

<p>Topic 19 - Blood as a Connective tissue: Plasma and cellular components
ECM?</p>

A

<p>ECM = Plasma
91-92% Water
8-9% Solute (ions, electrolytes, proteins)
</p>

81
Q

<p>21. Blood: granulocytes and agranulocytes

| Basophils - Morphology, originate from, function?</p>

A

<p>•U- or kidney-shaped nuclei, large purple granules.
Size: 10 mm. Very rare
•From red bone marrow
•Function is similar to CT mast cells.</p>

82
Q

<p>21. Blood: granulocytes and agranulocytes

| Lymphocytes - Morphology, originate from, types, function?</p>

A

<p>•Large nucleus with thin cytoplasmic rim. Size: 7-12 mm (large-medium-small)
•From the red bone marrow
•Develop into B- and T- lymphocytes
•Function: provide immunity. </p>

83
Q

<p>21. Blood: granulocytes and agranulocytes

| Monocytes?</p>

A

<p>•Large kidney-shaped nuclei. Size: up to 17 mm
•From red bone marrow
•Circulate blood for a couple days before entering the CT and transform to macrophage. </p>

84
Q

<p>22. Blood: comparison of the mammalian and avian blood corpuscles
</p>

A

<p>-Mammalian bloods erythrocytes have round discs and no nuclei, avian bloods erythrocytes have nucleated ovoid cells.
-Mammalian bloods thrombocytes have biconvex discs, no nucleus and are called platelets. Avian bloods thrombocytes are nucleated, ovoid and not platelets. Their granulocytes are called heterophils.</p>

85
Q

Topic 27- Supportive tissues: Cartilage

Cartilage?

A

Firm ECM
- In adults:
- Avaskular
- Aneutral
- Alymphatic
Covered by a PERICHONDRIUM (inner vascular layer/outer fibrous layer)
- Supplies cartilage with nutrients + oxygen
Cells - Chondrocytes
ECM= Fibres, Ground tissue. (Firm gel laced w/ collagen fibres)

86
Q
  1. Prenatal and postnatal hematopoiesis, structure of the bone marrow, hematopoietic stem cells:
    Explain prenatal hematopoiesis.
A
  • Blood cell generation begins in the wall of the yolk sac during intrauterine life. Primitive erythroblasts derive from mesenchyme.
  • Hematopoietic cells then migrate to the liver.
  • From the liver they are delivered to the bone marrow, spleen, lymph nodes, and thymus of the embryo, and begin hematopoiesis.
87
Q
  1. Prenatal and postnatal hematopoiesis, structure of the bone marrow, hematopoietic stem cells:
    Explain postnatal hematopoiesis.
A
  • Major site of generation occurs in the bone marrow, also in the liver and spleen for a few weeks after birth.
  • As demand for blood cells decreases with age, active red bone marrow is replaced by yellow bone marrow.
88
Q
  1. Prenatal and postnatal hematopoiesis, structure of the bone marrow, hematopoietic stem cells:
    What is bone marrow? Categories? Capacity? Components?
A
  • Soft, flexible connective tissue within bone cavities.
  • Two categories: red and yellow BM
  • Vascular and non-vascular sections.
  • Capacity; pluri-, multi and unipotent stem cells.
  • Components: adventitial reticular cells, erythropoietic cells and megakaryocytes, and granulopoietic cells
89
Q
  1. Prenatal and postnatal hematopoiesis, structure of the bone marrow, hematopoietic stem cells:
    Hematopoietic stem cells: origination, function and contains?
A
  • In red marrow
  • Production of blood cells.
  • The marrow contains ceveral types of self-replicating stem cells.
90
Q

Topic 27- Supportive tissues: Cartilage

Types of cartilage?

A

Hyaline:
- On articulating surf. of bone, provides support in nose etc
Elastic: Packed with elastic fibers - in ear etc
Fibrocartilage: Packed with collagen fibers, e.g. in intervertebral discs.

91
Q

Topic 28- Supportive tissues: Bone

Bone as supportive tissues?

A

Main source of calcium for organisms
Protects organs
Keeps bonemarrow in medullary space
Internal support for body/attachment for muscles
Cell/fibers embedded in hard mineralized tissue

92
Q
  1. Prenatal and postnatal hematopoiesis, structure of the bone marrow, hematopoietic stem cells
    Hematopoietic stem cells: occurance, function and contains?
A
  • In red marrow
  • Production of blood cells.
  • The marrow contains ceveral types of self-replicating stem cells.
93
Q

Topic 28- Supportive tissues: Bone

Bone in difference from cartilage?

A

Canalicular system in bone
Direct vascular system ( diffusion impossible)
Appositional growth only
Highly dynamic (renewed/remodelled through life)

94
Q

Topic 28- Supportive tissues: Bone

Categories of bones?

A
  • Cancellous (spongy bone): at end of long bones, Lamellar bone in diaphysis
  • Periosteum (layer covering bone): Medullary cavity for marrow
95
Q

Topic 28- Supportive tissues: Bone

Bone in difference from cartilage?

A

Canalicular system in bone
Direct vascular system ( diffusion impossible)
Appositional growth only
Highly dynamic (renewed/remodelled through life)

96
Q
  1. Hematopoiesis: Eythrocyte cell line

Stages?

A
  • Rubriblast
  • Prorubicyte
  • Basophilic rubricyte
  • Metarubricyte
  • Reticulocyte
97
Q
  1. Hematopoiesis: Eythrocyte cell line

Occurance?

A

Near vascular sinuses from CFU-E (colony-forming unit erythrocyte).

98
Q

Topic 28- Supportive tissues: Bone

Categories of bones?

A
  • Cancellous (spongy bone): at end of long bones, Lamellar bone in diaphysis
  • Periosteum (layer covering bone): Medullary cavity for marrow
99
Q
  1. Hematopoiesis: Granulocyte cell line

Stages?

A
  • Myeloblast
  • Promyelocyte
  • Myelocyte
  • Metamyelocyte
  • Band form
  • Mature form
100
Q
  1. Hematopoiesis: Granulocyte cell line

Occurance? Orgination?

A
  • Occurs in the midportion of hematopoietic compartment (away from vascular sinuses).
  • Originating from bipotent CFU-GM (colony-forming units-granulocyte-monocyte).
101
Q
  1. Hematopoiesis: Granulocyte cell line

Produces?

A

Neutrophil and monocyte progenitor cells.

102
Q
  1. Hematopoiesis: Granulocyte cell line

Compartments of the cells?

A
  • Proliferative (mitotic): myeloblasts, promyelocytes, and myelocytes.
  • Maturative (post mitotic): metamyelocytes and band form neutrophils.
  • Reserve (storage): mature neutrophils.
103
Q
  1. Hematopoiesis: Lymphopoiesis and thrombopoiesis

Occurance and stages of thrombopoiesis

A

From CFU-MK (colony-forming unit-megakaryocyte.
•Megakaryoblast
•Promegakaryocyte
•Megakaryocyte

104
Q
  1. Hematopoiesis: Lymphopoiesis and thrombopoiesis

Occurance and divides to produce?

A

From lymphoid stem cells, divide to produce:
• Pre-B-lymphocyte–>B-lymphoblast–>B-lymphocyte
• Pre-T-lymphocyte–>T-lymphoblast–>T-lymphocyte.

105
Q

Topic 28- Supportive tissues: Bone

Components?

A
  • Cells: Osteoblasts (in marrow)
  • Osteocytes, Osteoclasts: Phagocytes
  • Bone matrix: Osteoid (collagen fibers and hyaleroic acid)- flexibility
  • Inorganic compounds/minerals - firmness (Hydrooxyapatite crystals)
  • Lamellar bone: Build by several osteons
    Periosteum: Sharpey-fibers (connect collagen fibers of periosteum to those of lamellar bone)
  • Endosteum: Squamous cells lining bone marrow inside ion barrier. Role in mineral homeostasis.
106
Q
  1. Muscular tissue: definition and classification

Definition?

A
  • Perform directed, organized movements.
  • Tissues composed of elongated spindle-shaped cells or elongated muscle fibres.
  • Fibres arranged into bundles and surrounded by CT sheaths.
  • Mesodermal origin, densely vascularized and innervated (.
107
Q

Topic 29- Ostostogenesis: Desmal Ossification

The Method

A
  1. Capilaries invade
  2. Mesenchymal cells become spherical and form osteoprogenitor cells
  3. Differentiate into osteoblasts (bone-forming cells)
  4. Secrete osteoid (contributes to mineralization)
  5. Osteoblasts surrounded by osteoid become osteocytes,
108
Q
  1. Muscular tissue: skeletal muscle

Origination?

A

By fusion of mononuclear myoblast cells.

109
Q
  1. Muscular tissue: skeletal muscle

Morphology?

A
  • Longitudinal – elongated nuclei, traverse striations.

* Cross-section – polygonal cells, absence of striations.

110
Q

Topic 30- Ostostogenesis:Chondral Ossification

What is Chondral Ossification?

A 
Formed by hyaline cartilage
Replaced by bone in embryo
Forms:
   - Extremity bones
   - Vertebrae
   - Pelvis
111
Q

Topic 30- Ostostogenesis:Chondral Ossification

What are the steps?

A
  1. Cartilage grows quick at end of long bone
  2. Chondrocytes in middle enlarge
    • Promote calcifications of cartilage matrix: They can’t receive enough nutrients and dies
  3. Mesenchymical cells produce a bony collar around diaphysis - Trouble in metabolism of the chondrocytes
  4. Capillary loop perforates bony collar and provides oxygen.
  5. Chondrocytes degenerate chondrocytes, leaving calcified remains of matrix.
  6. Mesenchymical cells turns into osteoprogenitorcells, then osteoblasts-> Gives out osteoid.
112
Q
  1. Muscular tissue: cardiac muscle

Morphology?

A
  • Y-shaped fibre-derived cells
  • Central located nucleus.
  • Densely vascularized.
  • Cell borders – Eberth’s line.
113
Q
  1. Muscular tissue: cardiac muscle

Fibers?

A
  • Smaller fibres engage in contraction
  • Larger fibres generate impulse. Systole occurs, with delay before diastole, impulse carried by Purkinje fibres.
  • Cardiac myocytes: Purkinje fibres or discus intercalis (desmosomes and gap junctions).
114
Q
  1. Muscular tissue: molecular basis of muscle contraction

Composed of?

A

Sarcomere repeats:
•Bordered by Z lines, with half an isotropin (I) band extending towards A band.
•A band is composed of the H band and M line.
•Actin (thin filaments) are found within the Z line.
•Myosin (large and mobile filaments) originate in the A band.
•Overlap occurs in the A band (outside of H band and A line).

115
Q
  1. Muscular tissue: molecular basis of muscle contraction

Myofilaments?

A
  • Thin: F-actin is bound by tropmyosin and troponin complexes.
  • Thick: myosin combine to form bipolar structure.
116
Q
  1. Muscular tissue: molecular basis of muscle contraction

Sliding filaments-contractions?

A

Muscle shortening and change in muscle width:
•ATP allows myosin to undergo conformational change, releases actin.
•ATP is hydrolyzed, head cocks and filament slides against actin upon myosin binding.
•Release of PI allows for myosin power stroke and tight binding to actin.

117
Q
  1. Muscular tissue: molecular basis of muscle contraction

Requirements within the muscle?

A
  • Thick and thin filaments (actin and myosin)
  • Sarcoplasmic reticulum
  • Triad (calcium)
  • Energy
  • The enzyme (ATP and myosin head).
118
Q
  1. Muscular tissue: cardiac muscle

Fibers?

A
  • Smaller fibres engage in contraction
  • Larger fibres generate impulse. Systole occurs, with delay before diastole, impulse carried by Purkinje fibres.
  • Cardiac myocytes: Purkinje fibres or discus intercalis (desmosomes and gap junctions).
119
Q

Topic 30- Ostostogenesis:Chondral Ossification

What is Bone modeling?

A

During growth. (Grows eccentrically upon biomechanics needs-drift)

120
Q

Topic 30- Ostostogenesis:Chondral Ossification

What is Bone remodeling?

A

Turn-over of bone. Resorption faster than production- overall loss of bone through life.

121
Q
  1. Muscular tissue: smooth muscle

Sliding filaments?

A

Contractions cause muscle shortening and change in muscle width.
•ATP allows myosin to undergo conformational change, releases actin.
•ATP is hydrolyzed, head cocks and filament slides against actin upon myosin binding.
•Release of PI allows for myosin power stroke and tight binding to actin.

122
Q
  1. Muscular tissue: smooth muscle

Requirements within the muscle?

A

Thick and thin filaments (actin and myosin), sarcoplasmic reticulum and triad (calcium), energy, and the enzyme (ATP and myosin head).

123
Q

Topic 30- Ostostogenesis:Chondral Ossification

What does the Bony collar do?

A

Forces division of cells in certain direction - Shapes bone

124
Q
  1. Nervous tissue: the neurone

Multipolar cells?

A
  • Cortical pyramidal: apical branching dendrites towards cerebellum, with single basal axon. Pyramidal cell.
  • Cerebellar Purkinje: apical branching dendrite to dorsal cerebellum, with single basal axon. Rounded cell.
125
Q

Topic 30- Ostostogenesis:Chondral Ossification

What does the proliferation zone?

A

Forms row of compressed chondrocytes

126
Q

Topic 30- Ostostogenesis:Chondral Ossification

What is degeneration during Chondral ossification?

A

Chondrocytes are degenerated by the Chondroclasts (Phagocytes)

127
Q

Topic 30- Ostostogenesis:Chondral Ossification

What happens in the ossification?

A

Osteoblasts lay down osteoid, when buried completely turning into osteocytes

128
Q
  1. Nervous tissue: Glial cells, types and functions

Function?

A
  • Provide structural support
  • Form CNS boundary
  • Insulate axons
  • Maintain ionic homeostasis
  • Phagocytose cell debris
  • Produce scar tissue.
129
Q
  1. Nervous tissue: Glial cells, types and functions

Classification?

A 
Microglia: specialized macrophages from mesoderm tissue.
Macroglia: From ectodermal tissue
•CNS:
-Ependymal
-Astrocytes
-Oligondendrocytes
-Microglial cells.
•PNS: neurolemmocytes (Schwann cells and satellite cells)
130
Q

Topic 30- Ostostogenesis:Chondral Ossification

The bone after ossification?

A

This new bone is compact lamellar bone, Concurent periosteal growth leads into thickness slowly increasing (Desmal ossification)

131
Q

Topic 30- Ostostogenesis:Chondral Ossification

Epiphyseal plate?

A

Hyaline below each epiphysis - divided by mitosis till end of puberty, replaced by bone . leaves a line.

132
Q
  1. Nervous tissue: Glial cells, types and functions

Astrocytes? Occurance? Function?

A
  • Largest nuclei, stellate shaped, long slender process in white matter or shorter branching process in grey matter.
  • Processes form expanding endfeet which adjoin into surface of CNS(synapses) or blood-brain barrier.
  • Provide structural support, form diffusion barrier, and can phagocytose.
133
Q

Topic 41- General Histology + Classification of blood vessels:
Homeostatis?

A

Maintenance of internal environment

134
Q
  1. Nervous tissue: Glial cells, types and functions

Microglia? Function?

A
  • Elongated nuclei
  • Invade CNS upon vascularization
  • Antigen-presenting and phagocytic.
135
Q

Topic 41- General Histology + Classification of blood vessels:
Arteries?

A

Elastic

Muscular (large, medium, small, arteriole)

136
Q

Topic 41- General Histology + Classification of blood vessels:
Veins?

A

(Large, medium, small, muscular, post-capilary)

137
Q

Topic 41- General Histology + Classification of blood vessels:
Capillaries?

A

(Continious, fenestrated, sinuses)

  • General: 3 layers
    • Thin epithelium
    • Basal lamina
    • Sub-endothelial CT
138
Q

Topic 41- General Histology + Classification of blood vessels:
Tunica Media?

A

Thickest in arteries

  • smooth muscle
  • Elastic + Collagen fibers
  • Reticular fibers
  • Fibrocytes
139
Q
  1. Nervous tissue: Definition and it´s elements

Origination and specialization?

A
  • Originates from the neuroectoderm (notochord).

* Specialized to generate and conduct impulses.

140
Q
  1. Nervous tissue: structure of nerve, types of nerve fibers
    Location?
A
  1. CNS: myelin sheath is composed of oligodendrocytes.
  2. PNS: myelin sheath is composed of Schwann cells, the nerves consist of axons organized into connective tissue fascicles.
    - Within a fascicle each neurolemmocyte is surrounded by endoneurium.
    - Fascicles are surrounded by perineurium
    - Multiple fasciles are then bound by epineurium.
141
Q
  1. Nervous tissue: the neurone

Morphology?

A

•Cell body (soma) consists of cell organelles, branched processes (dendrites) and one myelinated process (axon).

142
Q

Topic 42- Arteries

What is Arterioles/ Capillary beds?

A

In work - Open sphincters - Blood through muscles

143
Q

Topic 43: Capillaries

What is Capillaries?

A

Small, Thin-walled

Overall large diameter. For exchange

144
Q

Topic 43: Capillaries

Types of capillaries?

A 
Continious:
   - Endothelium closed
   - Lamina basalis continious
   - Occurs: Skeletal muscle, lung, brain etc.
Fenestrated: 
   - Flattened endothelial cells 
   - Small pores. 
   - Occures: Intestine, kidney etc.
Sinuses: Large diameter, thin wall
145
Q
  1. Nervous tissue: the neurone

Function?

A
  • Excitatory: spiny dendrites. Axon forms asymmetrical synapses with excitatory neurotransmitters.
  • Inhibitory: non-spiny beaded dendrites. Axon forms symmetrical synapses with inhibitory neurotransmitters.
146
Q

Topic 44: Veines

Types of veins?

A

Venules
- Intima: Endothelia, lamina basalis
- Media: Circular smooth muscle
- Adventitia: Longitudinal collagen bundles
Large:
- Intima: Endothelial + sub endothelial CT
- Media: Circular smooth muscle (missing in penis ect)
- Adventitida: Thickest, collagen fibers, elastic fibers, smooth muscle etc.
Valves:
- Intima duplicates
- Forms semilunar pocket structures
- Prevents back flow of blood

147
Q
  1. Nervous tissue: the neurone

Whats is axons? Originates from?

A
  • Cylindrical process with minimal branching but multiple terminal branches (telodendrion)
  • Originates from axon hillock
148
Q
  1. Nervous tissue: Glial cells, types and functions

Function?

A
  • Provide structural support
  • Form CNS boundary
  • Insulate axons
  • Maintain ionic homeostasis
  • Phagocytose cell debris
  • Produce scar tissue.
149
Q
  1. Nervous tissue: Glial cells, types and functions

Classification?

A 
•CNS:
-Ependymal
-Astrocytes
-Oligondendrocytes
-Microglial cells.
•PNS: neurolemmocytes (Schwann cells and satellite cells)
150
Q

Topic 42- Arteries

Types

A

Elastic: e.g. Aorta. Lots of elastic filaments
Intima: Endothelial + Sub endothelial CT
Media: Elastic + smooth muscle
Adventida: Collagen, loose elsatic fibers
Muscular
- Media: Thick - smooth muscle spiral, elastic.
- Adventitia: Longitudinal collagen, CT

151
Q

Topic 42- Arteries

Diseased Arteries?

A

Plaques - reduces diameter - slows blood flow - clotting - Blockage

152
Q

Topic 44: Veins

What is Veins?

A 
Blood toward heart
Bigger in diameter - thicker near heart.
More CT
Less elastic/muscle than artery 
Low pressure
153
Q
  1. Nervous tissue: Glial cells, types and functions

What is glial cells?

A

Non-neuronal cells that support neurons. 3x more than neurons.

154
Q
  1. Nervous tissue: Glial cells, types and functions

Ependymal cells? Occurance?

A
  • Tightly packed columnar or cuboidal cells.
  • Ciliated and microvilliated luminal surface.
  • Found in the ventricular cavities of the brains and the central canal of the spinal cord).
155
Q
  1. Nervous tissue: Glial cells, types and functions

Astrocytes?

A
  • Largest nuclei, stellate shaped, long slender process in white matter or shorter branching process in grey matter.
  • Processes form expanding endfeet which adjoin into surface of CNS-synapses or blood-brain barrier.
  • Provide structural support, form diffusion barrier, and can phagocytose.
156
Q
  1. Nervous tissue: Glial cells, types and functions

Oligodendrocytes? Function?

A
  • Small spherical nuclei with thin processes
  • Form myelin sheath for CNS axons in white matter
  • Function as perineuronal satellite-like in gray matter.
157
Q
  1. Nervous tissue: Glial cells, types and functions

Microglia? Function?

A
  • Elongated nuclei
  • Invade CNS upon vascularization
  • Antigen-presenting and phagocytic.
158
Q
  1. Nervous tissue: Glial cells, types and functions

Function of neurolemmocytes?

A
  • Myelinate peripheral axons (Schwann cells and nodes of Ranvier) or encapsulate neuronal cell bodies (satellite cells)
  • Both protect the PNS neurons and phagocytice nerve damage.
159
Q

Topic 43: Veines

Types of veins?

A

Venules
- Intima: Endothelia, lamina basalis
- Media: Circular smooth muscle
- Adventitia: Longitudinal collagen bundles
Large:
- Intima: Endothelial + sub endothelial CT
- Media: Circular smooth muscle (missing in penis ect)
- Adventitida: Thickest, collagen fibers, elastic fibers, smooth muscle etc.
Valves:
- Intima duplicates
- Forms semilunar pocket structures
- Prevents back flow of blood

160
Q

Topic 45- Heart:

Contains?

A

Endocardium:
- Continious endothelial layer + thin collagen/elastic fiber layers.
- Smooth muscle
- Sub-endocardial CT
- Nerves
- Small blood vessels
Myocardium: Cardiac muscle - Striated
Epicardium:
- CT with coronaria vessels
- Visceral layer of pericardium (Mesothel)
Purkinje fibers: Transport of the contraction action potential.

161
Q

Topic 46: Lymphatic Vessels

Lymph capillaries?

A

Fine, tube, lined with endothelium.
Wider, more irregular than for blood.
Never any blood corpuscles
Lamina basalis and pericytes are missing
Larger: Resemble veins
- Intima: Endothelium + Sub-endothelial CT
- Media: Circular, Smooth muscle + some elastic fibers.
- Adventitia; Longitudinal smooth muscle + collagen fibers.

162
Q
  1. Nervous tissue: Synapses

Types?

A

•Electrical: gap junctions between membranes of adjacent neurons.
•Chemical: change in membrane potential of post-synaptic neuron by release of neurotransmitters from the pre-synaptic neuron.
o Types based on depolarization:
-Isotropic – linked to ion channels for depolarization.
-Metabotropic – linked to metabolism for depolarization.
o Types based on post-synaptic site:
-Axodendritic
-Axospinous
-Axosomatic
o Types based on function:
Excitatory

163
Q
  1. Nervous tissue: Synapses

What is synapses?

A

Structures that allows a neuron to pass an electrical or chemical signal to another neuron.

164
Q
  1. Nervous tissue: Synapses

What kind of neurotransmitters do we have?

A
  • Acetylcholine.
  • Amino acids: glutamate, aspartate.
  • Amino acid derivatives: serotonin, dopamine.
  • Peptides: opiods (endorphins), gastrins, neurohypophyseal (vasopressin).
  • Purins: adenosine.
165
Q
  1. Nervous tissue: structure of nerve, types of nerve fibers
    Classification?
A

Myelinated:
-A fibres: longest insulated segments. Motor neurons are the fastest (alpha type), followed by tactile, muscle spindles, and pain receptors (slowest, gamma type).
-B fibres: shorter internode lengths
-C fibres: slowest
Unmyelinated: slower transmission, typically shorter nerves.

166
Q
  1. Nervous tissue: structure of nerve, types of nerve fibers
    Location?
A
  • CNS: myelin sheath is composed of oligodendrocytes.
  • PNS: myelin sheath is composed of Schwann cells, the nerves consist of axons organized into connective tissue fascicles. Within a fascicle each neurolemmocyte is surrounded by endoneurium. Fascicles are surrounded by perineurium, multiple fasciles are then bound by epineurium.

Histology (3 decks)

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