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Functional Medicine > Histology > Flashcards

Histology Flashcards

1
Q

How does cardiac muscle differ from skeletal muscle?

A

Structurally- Cardiac muscle is branched, mononuclear, no stem cells, skeletal muscle has nuclei pressed against the membrane
Physiological- Cardiac muscle can contract/ relax without rest, secretes hormones (ANP- when stretched excessively, increased water/Na+/K+ excretion, inhibits RAAS)

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2
Q

What is the function of interrelated discs in the heart?

A

Desmosomes anchor one cardiac muscle to the next by immediate cytoskeleton filaments
Gap junctions allow ion transfer between cardiac smooth muscle electrochemical coupling

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3
Q

Describe the histology of purkinje fibres

A

Large modified muscles
Large vacuoles
Few myofibrils therefore pale H&E
Stores of glycogen

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4
Q

Describe the histology of the heart valves

A

Thick collagen with occasional elastic tissue. Both surfaces are covered with endothelial cells. Chordea tendinae are fibrous

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5
Q

Describe the histology of the pericardium

A

A single layer of mesothelial cells on the basement membrane with thin loose elastic/ fibrous tissue

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6
Q

Describe the histology of endocardium

A

A single layer of the heart with endothelial cells on the basement membrane with thin loose elastic/fibrous tissue. This covers the valves

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7
Q

What are the three layers of an artery/vein?

A

Intima (innermost layer)- endothelial cells on loose connective tisssue with occasional myointimal cells
Media (Middle layer)- Thicker in arteries than veins, made of smooth muscle, elastic and collagen
Adventitia (outermost)- Dense collagen and elastic

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8
Q

What are the features of a muscular artery?

A

Well defined medial layer of smooth muscle interspersed with elastic.
Wavy internal elastic lamina line at media-Intima divide.
Thick strands of collagen/elastic in adventitia
External elastic lamina only present in large muscular arteries

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9
Q

What are the features of an elastic artery?

A

Thick medial layer with concentric sheets of elastic interspersed with smooth muscle.

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10
Q

What vessels are elastic artery?

A

Aorta, GT Vessels

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11
Q

What are the features of arterioles?

A

3 or fewer layers of muscle in media. No internal elastic lamina. Poor adventitia

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12
Q

What are the features of the glandular acinus in the rectal musosa?

A

Lined by enterocytes and goblet cells

Mucosa does not ever contain blood vessels

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13
Q

What places have fenestrated capillaries?

A

Gut, kidney, glomerulus, endocrine glands

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14
Q

What is the diameter of a capillary?

A

5-10 micrometers (same as an erythrocytes)

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15
Q

Where are contractile pericytes found?

A

Capillary bed

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16
Q

What are the functions of endothelial cells?

A

Active transport of molecules across cytoplasm
Influence muscle tone
Coagulation
Produce cell adhesion molecules

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17
Q

What are the features of venules?

A

Thin walled
Irregular outline
Pericytes alongside them

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18
Q

What are the features of small veins?

A

Thin layers and poor boundaries
Irregular outline
Large lumen

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19
Q

What are the features of large veins?

A

Thick wall
Distinct layers
Medial layer with longitudinal smooth muscle
Thick adventitia with longitudinally arranged muscle fibres

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20
Q

What are the walls of lymph vessels?

A

Connective tissue with some muscle

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21
Q

What are the features of a lymph vessel?

A

Less pressure than venules
Sometimes lymphocytes seen
No blood

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22
Q

How can reticulocytes be identified on a slide?

A

Immature erythrocytes with some visible ribosomes (dark staining granules)

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23
Q

How can eosinophils be identified on a slide?

A

2-3 Lobe nucleus
Bright pink granules
Granular

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24
Q

What are the roles of eosinophils?

A

Phagocytosis of foreign material especially associated with parasitic infection
Neutralise histamine

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25
Q

How can neutrophils be identified on a slide?

A

Multi-lobar nucleus

Granular

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26
Q

What are the roles of neutrophils?

A

Phagocytic
Engulf and destroy bacteria
Leave blood stream to enter tissue at infection site

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27
Q

What are in the primary granules of neutrophils?

A

Lysosomes, acid hydrolases

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28
Q

What do the secondary granules of neutrophils do?

A

Regulation of inflammation response

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29
Q

What do the tertiary granules of neutrophils do?

A

Facilitate insertion of proteins to cell membrane

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30
Q

How can basophils be identified on a slide?

A

Not multilobar nuclei

Dark blue granules which appear to fill cell

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31
Q

What are the roles of basophils?

A

Secrete histamine

Similar role to mast cells

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32
Q

How can lymphocytes be identified on a slide?

A

Small cells with dark staining nucleus and little cytoplasm

B and T are indistinguishable

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33
Q

What are the non granular leukocytes?

A

Lymphocytes and monocytes

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34
Q

What are the granular leukocytes?

A

Eosinophils, basophils, neutrophils

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35
Q

How can monocytes be identified on a slide?

A

Kidney shaped nucleus
No granules
Pale blue cytoplasm

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36
Q

What are the roles of monocytes?

A

Immature cells which differentiate to one of the various forms when they leave blood
Acute inflammation
Arrive after neutrophils

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37
Q

How can platelets be identified on a slide?

A

Smaller than erythrocytes
Anucleate
Fragments
Blue

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38
Q

What are platelets formed from?

A

Fragments from multinuclear megakaryocytes

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39
Q

What are the 4 types of granules in a platelet?

A

Alpha
Dense
Lysosomes
Peroxisomes

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40
Q

What is respiratory epithelium?

A

Simple/pseudo-stratified columnar ciliated epithelium with non-ciliated stem cells

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41
Q

Where is respiratory epithelium found?

A

The nose, nasopharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles

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42
Q

What are swell bodies and where are they found?

A

Thin arterioles/venules deep to epithelium in the nose

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43
Q

Why is the skin thin in the nose?

A

To allow the escape of water

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44
Q

What does the mucous do on the respiratory epithelium?

A

Preventing dehydration of epithelium and traps particulate matter

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45
Q

Where is the olfactory epithelium found?

A

The roof of the nose below the cribriform plate

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46
Q

Describe the olfactory epithelium

A

Pseudo-stratified columnar epithelium with basal and sustenacular cells. Bipolar neurons and serous glands present. Special bowmans glands present

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47
Q

What are bowmans glands?

A

Small serous glands below olfactory epithelium

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48
Q

What are sustenacular cells?

A

Tall narrow cells in contact with the basement membrane. Cytoplasm accumulates yellow/brown pigment. Found in olfactory epithelium

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49
Q

What is the epithelium on the vocal folds?

A

Stratified squamous epithelium

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50
Q

What is the epithelium on the false folds?

A

Respiratory type epithelium

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51
Q

What is the epithelium on the vestibule?

A

Respiratory type epithelium

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52
Q

What is the epithelium on the trachea?

A

Respiratory type epithelium

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53
Q

What is the vocalis muscle?

A

Voluntary skeletal muscle in the vocal folds

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54
Q

What is the conus elasticus?

A

A free upper margin of elastic tissue on the vocal folds

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55
Q

What colour do goblet cells stain with H&E?

A

White

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56
Q

What type of epithelium is present in the bronchus?

A

Respiratory epithelium

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57
Q

How is the bronchus held open?

A

Hyaline cartilage framework which appears as isolated islands

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58
Q

Describe the bronchus histology

A

Respiratory epithelium
Held open by hyaline cartilage
Smooth muscle band under epithelium
Lymph nodules (MALT) at connective tissue

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59
Q

What is a lymph node?

A

A discrete encapsulated collection of lymphoid tissue

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60
Q

Describe the histology of the bronchioles

A 
Respiratory epithelium
Smooth muscle
Lymph nodules
Closely associated arteries and veins 
No goblet cells
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61
Q

Describe the histology of the terminal bronchioles

A

Simple cuboidal epithelium
Sparsely ciliated
Clara cells- function is secretory and synthetic
Sphincter like smooth muscle ring

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62
Q

Describe the histology of the respiratory bronchioles

A

Simple cuboidal epithelium

Larger than terminal bronchioles

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63
Q

Describe the histology of the alveoli

A

Respiratory epithelium
Fibroblasts in walls
Adjoining alveoli connected by pores
Type one and type two cells

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64
Q

What is a type one alveolar cell?

A

Thin cells with flat nuclei

40% population, 90% surface area

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65
Q

What is a type two alveolar cell?

A

Globular cells secreting surfactants. Rounded dark staining nuclei.
60% population, 10% surface area

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66
Q

What do fibroblasts in alvoli do?

A

Produce type three collagen (reticulin) and elastic tissue (recoil)

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67
Q

What do alveolar macrophages do?

A

Free roam in alveoli and phagocytose particulate matter and cell debris. Formed from monocyte in blood.

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68
Q

Where are fixed/septail alveolar macrophages found?

A

The interstitium between cells and tissue

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69
Q

What type of epithelium is in the mouth?

A

Stratified squamous non-keratinising epithelium

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70
Q

What type of epithelium is in the oropharynx?

A

Stratified squamous non-keratinising epithelium

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71
Q

What type of epithelium is in the lip?

A

Stratified squamous keratinising epithelium

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72
Q

Why is there striated skeletal muscle in the deeper layers of the mouth?

A

To change shape of the oral cavity

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73
Q

What are fordyce’s spots?

A

Sebaceous glands in the lip- whitish spots

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74
Q

What type of epithelium is on ventral surface of the tongue?

A

Stratified squamous non keratinising epithelium

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75
Q

What type of epithelium is on the dorsal surface of the tongue?

A

Stratified squamous keratinising epithelium

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76
Q

What is found on the upper surface of the tongue?

A

Connective tissue
Stratified squamous keratinising epithelium
2 types of salivary glands
Large bundles of striated muscle

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77
Q

How do serous glands appear on a slide?

A

Pink staining- appear as a cluster of grapes with a nucleus on the base

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78
Q

What are the complex folds on the dorsal tongue surface known as?

A

Papillae

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79
Q

What are the filiform papillae?

A

The most common papillae. Tall and pointed. On whole anterior two thirds of tongue

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80
Q

What are the fungiform papillae?

A

Found at the tip and sides of the tongue. Pale staining, spindle shaped taste puds with nerve vesicles

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81
Q

What are the circumvallate papillae?

A

A V shaped row at the margin of anterior 2/3 and posterior 1/3 of tongue

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82
Q

Describe the histology parotid salivary glands

A

Striated ducts are surrounded by serous acini
Synthesise alpha-amylase
Secreted via ducts to mouth- Ducts can alter ionic concentrations
Branches of facial nerve pass through gland. Large lymph nodes embedded within gland.

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83
Q

How do parotid secretory cells appear on a slide?

A

Pyramidal, spherical nucleus, basal cytoplasm full of rough endoplasmic reticulum, apex contains prominent secretory granules (pink staining)

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84
Q

How do parotid duct cells appear on a slide?

A

Simple cuboidal (stratified at distal end)

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85
Q

Describe the histology of the sublingual salivary gland

A 
Pale staining secretory cells
Darker staining duct with simple cuboidal epithelium 
Flattened oval nuclei to base of cells
Branched tubular acinar glands 
Sticky mucus rich secretion
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86
Q

Describe the histology of the submandibular salivary gland

A

Well defined
Branched tubulo acinar
Interspersed with fat adipose
Mixed secretion-part mucus part enzyme rich
Serous cells form demi-lunes at closed end of tubules

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87
Q

What is the epithelium on the epiglottis?

A

Stratified squamous non-keratinising epithelium (respiratory epithelium on lower posterior part)

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88
Q

Describe the histology of the epiglottis

A

SSNKE (resp epithelium on lower posterior part)

Contains elastic cartilage plate, lymph nodules, and salivary glands

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89
Q

What are the four layers of the GI tract?

A
  1. Mucosa
  2. Sub-mucosa
  3. External muscle coat (muscularis externa)
  4. Serosa
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90
Q

What is the GI tract innermost mucosa layer formed of?

A

Epithelium, lamina propria (connective tissue), and a smooth muscle ring (muscularis mucosa)

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91
Q

What is the GI tract’s sub-mucosa formed of?

A

Loose connective tissue, glands, lymphoid tissue, blood vessels, meissner’s plexus

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92
Q

What is the GI tract’s musculris externa formed of?

A

2 layers of smooth muscle, auerbach’s plexus

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93
Q

What is the GI tract’s serosa formed of?

A

Simple squamous epithelium

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94
Q

What is the muscularis mucosa like in the oesophagus?

A

Narrow (thicker at gastric end)

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95
Q

What is the epithelium in the oesophagus?

A

SSNKE above diaphragm, simple columnar below diaphragm

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96
Q

What does the sub-mucosa of the oesophagus contain?

A

Sero-mucous glands for lubrication, large thin walled veins

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97
Q

What is the muscle of the muscularis externa like in the oesophagus?

A

Upper 1/3- skeletal
Middle 1/3- Mixed
Lower 1/3- Smooth

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98
Q

What are the folds of mucosa in the stomach called?

A

Rugae

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99
Q

What is the epithelium in the stomach?

A

Simple columnar epithelium

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100
Q

How thick is the muscularis externa in the stomach?

A

3 layers

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101
Q

What are the oblique muscle fibres in the stomach for?

A

Churning

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102
Q

Where in the stomach are full gastric glands found?

A

Body and Fundus

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103
Q

Where in the stomach are there no parietal/chief cells found?

A

Cardia and pylorus

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104
Q

What is the submucosa of the stomach body like?

A

Loose connective tissue with abundant vessels

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105
Q

Why does the muscularis mucosa of the stomach contain elastic?

A

To stop stomach collapse on empty

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106
Q

How to parietal cells appear on a slide?

A

Globular- bright pink with H&E

Cell surface invaginated with many mitochondria

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107
Q

Where in the stomach are parietal cells found?

A

Gastric glands in the body/ fundus

Upper part of the gland close to the pits

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108
Q

Where in the stomach are chief cells found?

A

Gastric glands in the body/ fundus

Close to muscularis mucosa

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109
Q

How do chief cells appear on a slide?

A

Pyramidal
Blue cytoplasm on H&E
Contains granules

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110
Q

Describe the histology of the pyloric region of the stomach

A

Cardiac and pyloric gastric glands are shorter
Glands are coiled
Mainly mucus neck cells
Scattered with cells producing gastrin

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111
Q

Describe the histology of a villi

A

Simple columnar epithelium
Short life but replaced by crypt population
Contain venule, arteriole, lacteal, smooth muscle

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112
Q

Describe the histology of a crypt of lieberkuhn

A

Between villi
Stem cell population
Migrate to the top and shaved off after 5 days

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113
Q

Why does the brush border stain intensely magenta with PAS?

A

High concentrations of hexose sugars

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114
Q

What are brunner’s glands?

A

Mucous secreting gland in the submucosa of the duodenum- alkaline secretion that neutralises chyme

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115
Q

Describe the histology of the duodenum

A 
Broad and leaf like villi
Few goblet cells
Brunner's Glands 
Long crypts 
Inner circular layer thicker than outer longitudional layer of muscularis externa
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116
Q

What are paneth cells?

A

Differentiated cells found at the bottom of crypts that secrete lysozyme and regulate the flora of gut. Bright pink cytoplasmic granules and dark staining nuclei

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117
Q

Describe the histology of the jejunum

A 
Closed packed plicae circularis 
Many goblet cells 
Long narrow villi
Short crypts 
Loose submucosa 
Lymph nodules at lamina propria
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118
Q

Describe the histology of the ilium

A

Fewer plicae and shorter villi due to lesser absorption
Goblet cells increase towards distal end
Large peyers patches at submucosa
Simple squamous serosa on edge of longitudional muscle

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119
Q

What is the epithelium of the appendix?

A

Simple columnar epithelium

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120
Q

Describe the histology of the appendix

A 
Simple columnar epithelium
Goblet cells 
Simple crypts 
No muscular mucosa
Fat filled 
Lamina propria and submucosa full of lymphoid tissue
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121
Q

Describe the histology of the colon

A 
Little folding with no villi
Mucosa contains close-packed crypts with abundant goblet cells and enterocytes 
Prominent muscularis mucosa
Lots of lymph in mucosa and submucosa
Taeniae coli
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122
Q

What is the epithelium in the anal canal?

A

Stratified squamous epithelium, keratinised at distal end

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123
Q

Describe the muscularis externa in the anal canal

A

Smooth muscle of muscularis externa is thickened and surrounded by striated muscle of external anal sphincter

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124
Q

What are the functions of the hepatocytes?

A

Creation/store energy as gycogen and fat
Synthesise plasma proteins
De-amination of amino acids and production urea
Uptake, synthesis, excretion of bilirubin and bile acids
Detox and inactivation of drugs by oxidation

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125
Q

What are the four lobes of the liver?

A

Left
Right
Caudate
Quadrate

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126
Q

What is the blood supply to the lobules?

A

70% Portal vein blood

30% portal artery blood

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127
Q

What are sinusoids?

A

Wide, thin, fenestrated capillaries

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128
Q

What is in the portal triad?

A

Hepatic artery, hepatic vein, bile duct

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129
Q

What is the epithelium of a bile ductule?

A

Simple cuboidal epithelium

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130
Q

What is space of disse?

A

Area in liver- no blood here but plasma

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131
Q

Describe the histology of the sinusoids

A

Endothelial cells interspersed with kupffer cells and ito cells
Sit on a meshwork of reticulin
Separated from hepatocyte cords by space of disse

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132
Q

What are kupffer cells?

A

Fixed macrophages in the lining of sinusoidal endothelium. Phagocytose blood borne pathogens

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133
Q

Describe the histology of the gallbladder

A 
Simple columnar with poor brush border
Adapted for water reabsorption
Epithelium thrown into folds 
Gallstones may be present at lumen
Large veins in walls
Smooth muscle at outer surface 
Serosa visible at top
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134
Q

How are the pancreatic enzymes activated?

A

Alkaline environment of duodenum

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135
Q

How is the exocrine pancreas stimulated to secrete alkaline fluid from centro-acinar and small duct cells?

A

Secretin

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136
Q

What is the pacinian corpuscle?

A

The pressure sensor in the pancreas

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137
Q

What is the epithelium in the exocrine pancreas?

A

Simple cuboidal epithelium

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138
Q

Give 3 examples of fixatives that can be used to fix a specimin

A

Formalin
Alcohol
Acid

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139
Q

What is used to dehydrate tissues?

A

Alcohol

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140
Q

How thick are the slices of specimins?

A

2-10 micrometres

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141
Q

How are blood samples viewed histologically?

A

Smears

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142
Q

What does haematoxylin stain?

A

Nuclei and RNA = blue

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143
Q

What does eosin stain?

A

Cytoplasm, fibres, colloidal protein= Pink

Keratin= Orange/Red

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144
Q

What does iron haemotoxylin stain?

A

Nuclei and elastic fibres= Black

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145
Q

What does alcian blue stain?

A

GAG-rich structures, mucous goblet cells, mast cell granules, cartilage, matrix= Blue

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146
Q

What does Period acid schiff stain?

A

Hexose sugars= Magenta

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147
Q

What does Perl’s stain stain?

A

Ferric iron= Prussian blue

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148
Q

What does Romanovsky stains stain?

A

Chromatin, azyrophils, neutrophils granules= purple
Erythrocytes= Red/Pink
Eosinophil granules= Pale blue
Lymphocyte and monocyte cytoplasm, basophil granules= Dark blue

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149
Q

What does Toluidine blue stain?

A

Nuclei, ribosomes = Dark blue
Cytoplasm, cartilage, matrix= pale blue
Mat cell granules, GAG rich components= Bright purple

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150
Q

What does Van gieson stain?

A 
Collagen= Pink/Red
Cytoplasm= Yellow/Green
Nuclei= Black
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151
Q

What are all the 6 cell shapes?

A 
Rounded
Polygonal
Fusiform
Squamous
Cuboidal
Columnar
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152
Q

What are the 5 tissue types?

A

Epithelia, muscle, supporting tissue, nerves and germ cells

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153
Q

What is the difference between euchromatin and heterochromatin?

A

Euchromtin is lightly packed and heterochromatin is tightly packed

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154
Q

Where is the site of lipid synthesis?

A

The mitochondrial outer membrane and smooth ER

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155
Q

Where is the site of the ETC chain?

A

The mitochondrial inner membrane

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156
Q

Where is the site of the Krebs cycle?

A

The mitochondrial matrix

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157
Q

Where is the site of nucleotide phosphorylation?

A

The intermembranous space of the mitochondria

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158
Q

Where is the site of protein synthesis?

A

Rough ER

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159
Q

Where is the site of proteolysis?

A

Trans golgi network

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160
Q

Where are vesicles recieved?

A

The cis face of the golgi

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161
Q

Where are olgiosaccharides formed?

A

The medial golgi

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162
Q

What is the role of perioxiomes?

A

Oxidise long chain fatty acids

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163
Q

What is lipofuscin?

A

An orange-brown pigment from peroxidation of lipids in older cells- common in heart and liver of older patients

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164
Q

How long are tubulin proteins?

A

25nm

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165
Q

How long are actin microphilaments?

A

5nm

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166
Q

How long are intermediate filaments?

A

10nm

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167
Q

Where is simple squamous epithelium found?

A

Blood vessels, the outside of the lungs, abdominal organs

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168
Q

Where is simple cuboidal epithelium found?

A

The kidney tubules, small ducts

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169
Q

Where is simple columnar epithelium found?

A

The stomach, intestines and uterus

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170
Q

What filaments are microvilli formed of?

A

Actin and Myosin

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171
Q

What filaments are cilia formed of?

A

Tubulin and dynein

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172
Q

Where is stratified epithelia found?

A

Sites of abrasion- skin, vagina, mouth

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173
Q

Where is stratified squamous non-keratinising epithelium found?

A

Mouth, oropharynx, vagina

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174
Q

Where is stratified squamous keratinising epithelium found?

A

The skin

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175
Q

What does keratin do to an epithelium?

A

Waterproof it

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176
Q

Where is pseudostratified epithelium found?

A

The conducting airways

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177
Q

What types of epithelium can have cilia?

A

Simple columnar epithelium, pseudostratified epithelium

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178
Q

What extra-cellular proteins are present in a basement membrane?

A

Collagen IV and fibronectin

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179
Q

What stain will make basement membranes visible?

A

PAS

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180
Q

What are occluding (tight) junctions?

A

Band-like fusions between cells that are impervious to most molecules

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181
Q

What are desmosomes?

A

Plaques that form physical joints between cells and connect the cytoskeletons of adjacent cells

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182
Q

What are gap junctions?

A

Electrical junctions that permit the transfer of small molecules

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183
Q

What is the origin of connective tissue cells?

A
  • Usually undifferentiated mesenchymal cells e.g. fibroblasts
  • Some from haematopoetic stem cell line e.g. monocytes
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184
Q

What molecules are present in the ground substance?

A

Proteogylcans, GAG, Invisible fibres like laminin

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185
Q

What is collagen secreted from?

A

Fibroblasts

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186
Q

Are collagen fibres produced extracellularly or intracellularly?

A

Extra-cellularly

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187
Q

Where is type I collagen normally found?

A

Skin and bone

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188
Q

Where is type II collagen normally found?

A

Cartilage

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189
Q

Where is type III collagen normally found?

A

Liver, bone marrow, spleen (reticulin)

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190
Q

Where is type IV collagen normally found?

A

Basement membrane

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191
Q

Where is type V collagen normally found?

A

Placenta

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192
Q

How is collagen viewed on H&E?

A

Extracellular fibres that stain pink. Variable thickness and length. Often run in bundles

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193
Q

What is loose connective tissue comprised of?

A

Widely spaced, thin collagen fibres and the fibroblasts that secrete them. Inbetween this is unstained ground substance

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194
Q

What is dense connective tissue comprised of?

A

Densely packed thick collagen fibres, and the fibroblasts that secrete them. Some unstained ground substance

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195
Q

What are the two types of dense connective tissue?

A

Regular and Irregular

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196
Q

Where is regular dense connective tissue found?

A

Tendons

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197
Q

Where is irregular dense connective tissue found?

A

Fascia of penis

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198
Q

What is reticuin?

A

Type III collagen- forms a supporting scaffold in many organs e.g. bone marrow, liver, kidney, spleen

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199
Q

What stain is used for reticulin?

A

Silver stain

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200
Q

What is elastin?

A

Elastic tissue containing fine fibres and sheets of elastin. It is produced by fibroblasts.

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201
Q

What stain is used for elastin?

A

H&E

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202
Q

Describe the histological appearance of white adipose tissue

A

Large cells with a single fat globule in each cell which pushes the cytoplasm and nucleus to the edge. Usually appears empty in slides as fat is extracted in processing

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203
Q

Where is brown adipose tissue found?

A

Across the shoulders and down the back of newborns- important in neonatal thermoregulation (generates heat on breakdown)

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204
Q

What is the difference between brown and white adipose tissue?

A

Brown has many globules of fat per cell, white only has one globule per cell.
Brown is only found in newborns, white is found in adults

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205
Q

Describe the histological appearance of brown adipose tissue

A

Many fat globules per cell, with multiple vacuoles. Generally a pink “foamy” appearance

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206
Q

What cells are found in cartilage?

A

Chondroblasts and chondrocytes

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207
Q

Is cartilage vascular or avascular?

A

Avascular- derives its blood supply from vessels either side of the cartilage

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208
Q

Where is hyaline cartilage found?

A

Synovial joints

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209
Q

Describe the histological appearance of hyaline cartilage

A

Chondrocytes in lacunae surrounded by a glassy amorphous blue/grey matrix with no visible fibres

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210
Q

Where is elastic cartilage found?

A

The pinna of the ear and the epiglottis

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211
Q

What is found in the the perichonrium of hyaline, elastic and fibrocartilage?

A

Fibroblasts and collagen

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212
Q

Describe the histological appearance of elastic cartilage

A

Visible elastic fibres in a blue/grey matrix

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213
Q

What stain is used for elastic cartilage?

A

H&E can be used, but it is more visible with silver stain

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214
Q

Where is fibrocartilage found?

A

Annulus fibrosis of spine and pubic symphysis

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215
Q

Describe the histological appearance of fibrocartilage

A

Visible collagen fibres in matrix

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216
Q

Where is synovium found?

A

The inside of the joint capsule

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217
Q

How many layers of synovial cells are in the synovium?

A

1-4 layers

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218
Q

What are the type A and type B cells in synovium?

A

Type A- phagocytes

Type B- cells rich in rER that secrete synovial fluid

219
Q

Is synovium vascular or avascular?

A

Richly vascular

220
Q

Where is smooth muscle found?

A

The walls of blood vessels, tube of intestine and bronchioles

221
Q

Describe the histological appearance of smooth muscle

A

Individual cells with oval/ circle nucleus

Set in eosynophilic cytoplasm with no striations

222
Q

State the layers of an artery wall going from lumen outwards

A
  1. Lumen
  2. Endothelium
  3. Basement membrane
  4. Intima
  5. Internal elastic lamina
  6. Media
  7. External elastic lamina
  8. Adventitia
223
Q

What is the intima?

A

A thin layer of connective tissue- the next layer after the lumen

224
Q

What is the media?

A

A thick layer of connective tissue, generally comprising of smooth muscle with some fibroblasts, and variable amounts of collagen and elastin

225
Q

What is the internal elastic lamina?

A

A layer of elastic tissue bounding the intima

226
Q

What is the adventitia?

A

The final layer of an artery wall, formed of loose elastic tissue

227
Q

Name an elastic artery

228
Q

Describe the media of an elastic artery

A

A thick layer of connective tissue, containing abundant concentric sheets of elastin

229
Q

Are most arteries muscular or elastic?

230
Q

Describe the media of a muscular artery

A

A thick layer of connective tissue, comprising of smooth muscle and has a little elastin

231
Q

Name two muscular arteries

A

The radial artery and the splenic artery

232
Q

How can arterioles be distinguished from arteries?

A

Arterioles are arbitrarily defined as having 3 or fewer muscle layers in their media or being up to 100 micrometres in diametre.
In the arterioles the elastic laminae is poorly defined

233
Q

What are pericytes?

A

A layer of cells on the outside of capillaries and venules which regulate their size

234
Q

What is a fenestrated capillary?

A

When the endothelial layer is incomplete. This facilitates movement in and out of capillaries.

235
Q

What are the layers of a capillary wall

A

Endothelium
Basement membrane
Pericyte

236
Q

Where are fenestrated capillaries found?

A

The kidneys and liver

237
Q

What is the difference between a vein’s wall and an artery’s wall?

A

A vein has a wider lumen and thinner media. Veins also have no external elastic lamina.

238
Q

What are pericytes replaced with as venules become veins?

A

Smooth muscle

239
Q

Is the smooth muscle in veins circular or longitudional?

A

Can be either !

240
Q

What vessels have valves?

A

Veins and lymphatics

241
Q

What does lymphatics contain?

A

Eosinophilic lymph (fluid derived from plasma) and may contain lymphocytes

242
Q

What cells produce myelin?

A

Schwann cells

243
Q

What is endoneurium?

A

Connective tissue present between individual axons

244
Q

What is perineurium?

A

Connective tissue surrounding groups of axons to form fasicles

245
Q

What is epineurium?

A

Connective tissue binding fasicles to form nerve fibres

246
Q

What stain can be used for myelin?

A

Silver stain

247
Q

What is myelin?

A

A spiral of apposed schwann cell membranes that insulate the axon

248
Q

What are nodes of ranvier?

A

Gaps between schwann cells that allow for saltatory conduction

249
Q

Where are the cell bodies of motor neurons found?

A

In the grey matter of the spinal cords

250
Q

Where are the cell bodies of sensory neurons found?

A

The dorsal root gangion

251
Q

Where are the cell bodies of sympathetic neurons found?

A

In the grey matter of the spinal cord and in adjacent sympathetic ganglia

252
Q

Where are the cell bodies of parasympathetic neurons found?

A

The brain and local ganglia of organs

253
Q

What are the four principle components of the urinary tract?

A

Kidneys
Ureters
Bladder
Urethra

254
Q

How many nephrons are approximately in one kidney?

A

One million

255
Q

What are the 6 components of the nephron?

A 
Proximal convoluted tubule
Thick limb loop of henle
Thin limb loop of henle 
Glomerulus 
Distal convoluted tubule 
Collecting duct
256
Q

What are the 3 layers of the kidney?

A

Cortex
Medulla
Pelvis

257
Q

What aspects of the nephron are primarily found within the cortex of the kidney?

A

Glomeruli
Proximal convoluted tubule
Distal convoluted tubule
Medullary rays

258
Q

What is a medullary ray?

A

A collection of loops of henle and collecting duct that have their renal corpuscles in the outer part of the cortex (because their glomerulus is at the very outer aspect of the cortex)

259
Q

What aspects of the nephron are primarily found within the medulla of the kidney?

A

Loops of henle, collecting ducts, and blood vessels

260
Q

What is a glomerulus?

A

A tuft of convoluted fenestrated capillaries, supported by mesangial cells and encased within the Bowman’s capsule

261
Q

What layers will molecules have to get through to get from the glomerulus to the bowman’s capsule?

A

The capillary endothelium, the double thickness glomerular basement membrane, the foot processes of the podocytes

262
Q

What are the two cell types found at the glomerulus?

A

Capillary endothelial cells and mesengial cells (lie inbetween the capillaries)

263
Q

What stain can be used to see the glomerular basement membrane?

A

Periodic acid schiff (PAS)

264
Q

What is the role of the mesangial cells in the glomerulus?

A

Provide structural support for the capillary, and are formed of smooth muscle so can contract to narrow capillaries and reduce the glomerular filtration rate.
Also involved in the phagocytosis of glomerular breakdown products.

265
Q

What are the layers of the glomerular basement membrane?

A

Lamina lucida interna
Double thickenss lamina densa
Lamina lucida externa

266
Q

Why are Heparan sulfate molecules found in the glomerular basement membrane?

A

To repel negatively charged ions in the plasma

267
Q

What are the two components associated with the juxtaglomerular apparatus?

A

The afferent arteriole and distal convoluted tubule

268
Q

How is the afferent arteriole associated with the juxtaglomerular apparatus?

A

It contributes granular cells that secrete renin in response to low blood pressure

269
Q

How is the distal convoluted tubule associated with the juxtaglomeruar apparatus?

A

It contributes the macula densa, which is a patch of closely packed endothelial cells along a tubule. They sense NaCl conc and regulate tubuloglomerular feedback.

270
Q

What are the three cell types present in the juxtaglomerular apparatus?

A

Lacis cells
Macula Densa
Granular cells

271
Q

Describe the histological appearance of the proximal convoluted tubule

A

Cuboidal epithelium rings with round central/basal nuclei. Very prominent brush border of microvilli in the luminal surface, and many mitochondria so appears eosinophilic.

272
Q

What is the role of the proximal covoluted tubule?

A

Reabsorption of NaCl proteins, polypeptides, amino acids, glucose

273
Q

What is the difference between the epithelium of the thin and thick segments of the loop of henle?

A

Thin- simple squamous

Thick- Low cuboidal

274
Q

Describe the histological appearance of the distal convoluted tubule

A

Low cuboidal epithelium rings with scanty microvilli- no prominant brush border. Numerous mitochondria.

275
Q

What is the role of the distal convoluted tubule?

A

Regulates acid base by secreting H+ and absorbing HCO3- (Via cellular carbonic anhydrase). Reguates Na level by exchanging Na for K- mediated by aldosterone.

276
Q

How can you tell a collecting duct apart from the loop of henle?

A

The collecting duct has cuboidal epithelium, which is much plumper than that of the loop of henle, and has round, central nuclei

277
Q

What is the role of collecting duct?

A

Water reabsorption, sodium balance and acid base balance.

278
Q

What are the two types of epithelial cell present in the collecting duct?

A

Principal cell and intercalated cells

279
Q

What is the role of the principal cells of the collecting duct?

A

To respond to aldosterone and ADH for water reabsorption (insertion of aquaporin 2)

280
Q

What is the role of the intercalated cells of the collecting duct?

A

To exchange H+ for HCO3-

281
Q

What is the order of divisions of the kidney’s blood supply?

A

Abdominal aorta-> Renal artery at L1 -> Anterior and posterior division -> interlobar artery -> arcuate artery -> Interlobular artery -> Afferent arteriole -> glomerulus-> Efferent arteriole -> Peritubular capillaries -> Vasa recta

282
Q

What is the epithelium of the renal pelvis?

A

Urothelium

283
Q

What is the role of the renal pelvis?

A

Transmits filtrate from nephron to ureter

284
Q

Describe urothelium

A

Complex stratified epithelium- A layer of umbrella cells overlying a pseudostratified layer of polygonal cells

285
Q

What are the 3 layers of urothelium?

A
  1. Large dome-shaped umbrella cells
  2. Intermediate layer
  3. Basal layer- cuboidal cells
286
Q

In the GI tract, is the muscle circular on the inner or outer layer?

A

Circular on the inner layer

287
Q

In the ureter is the muscle circular on the inner or outer layer?

A

Circular on the outer layer

288
Q

Do ureters have a serosa?

289
Q

What are the layers of the bladder?

A 
Urothelium
Lamina propria 
(poorly developed) Muscularis mucosa
Submucosa 
(Well developed) Muscularis propria
Subserosa and serosa
290
Q

How many muscular layers are there in the muscularis propria of the bladder?

291
Q

How long is the urethra in females?

292
Q

What is the epithelium of the female urethra?

A

Proximally- urothelium

Distally- Non-keratinising squamous epithelium

293
Q

What glands open into the female urethra?

A

Paraurethral and periurethral

294
Q

How long is the male urethra?

295
Q

What are the three parts of the male urethra?

A
  1. Prostatic urethra (3cm)
  2. Membranous urethra (1cm)
  3. Penile urethra (16cm)
296
Q

What is the epithelium of the male urethra?

A

Prostatic and membranous urethra- urothelium

Penile urethra- Pseudostratified epithelium proximally and stratified squamous epithelium distally.

297
Q

What is the average weight of the testis?

298
Q

What are the three layers that form the capsule around the testis?

A
  • Tunica vaginalis
  • Tunica albuginea
  • Tunica vasculosa
299
Q

What is the tunica vaginalis in men?

A

Two layers (parietal and visceral) of flattened mesothelial cells forming the outside of the capsule of the testis

300
Q

What is the tunica albuginea in men?

A

A thick fibrous layer of the testi’s capsule- contains collagen fibres with some fibroblasts, myocytes and nerve fibres

301
Q

What is the tunica vasculosa in men?

A

The thin innermost layer of the testi’s capsule- contains loose connective tissue containing blood vessels and lymphatics

302
Q

Where do spermatazoa form?

A

The seminiferous tubules

303
Q

What is the route of spermatazoa from seminiferous tubule to outside the body?

A 
Seminiferous tubule
Straight tubules
Reti testis
Efferent ducts
Epididymis
Vas deferens
Ejaculatory duct
Urethra
304
Q

How many lobules are there roughly in the testis?

305
Q

What does the septa between lobules of the testis form from?

A

The capsule of the testis

306
Q

How many seminiferous tubules are there per lobule?

307
Q

What are the three types of spermatogonia?

A

Type A darkly stained cells
Type A pale stained cells
Type B differentiating cells

308
Q

What is the role of type A dark cells in the testis?

A

Stem cell population

309
Q

What is the role of type A pale cells in the testis?

A

Develop into type B cells

310
Q

Describe the histological appearance of type B cells in the testis

A

Spherical nuclei with densely stained masses of chromatin

311
Q

What is the order of development of sperm?

A 
Spermatogonia
Primary spermatocytes
Secondary spermatocytes
Spermatids
Spermatozoa
312
Q

Where are sertoli cells found?

A

Resting on the basement membrane of the seminiferous tubule

313
Q

Describe the histological appearance of sertoli cells

A

Columnar cells with irregularly shaped nuclei; folded and with a prominent nucleolus. Eosinophilic cytoplasm

314
Q

What are the roles of sertoli cells?

A

Supportive, phagocytic and secretory functions- androgen binding protein and inhibin

315
Q

What structures are present in the head of the spermatozoa?

A

Acrosomal cap and nucleus

316
Q

What structures are present in the midpiece of the spermatozoa?

A

Spiral mitochondria wrapped around an axoneme

317
Q

What structures are present in the tail of the spermatozoa?

A

Neck- centrioles

Axoneme surrounded by a plasma membrane

318
Q

Where are leydig cells found?

A

Singly or in clusters in the interstitium between seminiferous tubules

319
Q

What are the roles of leydig cells?

A

Secrete testosterone

320
Q

Describe the histological appearance of leydig cells

A

Cells with abundant cytoplasm containing lipid containing reinke’s crystalloids (intracytoplasmic eosinophilic crystalloids found after puberty)

321
Q

What is the rete testis?

A

An anastamosing network of tubules at the hilum of the testis that receive luminal contents from seminiferous tubules

322
Q

Describe the histological appearance of the rete testis

A

Tubules lined by simple squamous or low columnar epithelium on a relatively thick basement membrane. Have cilia at the luminal surface.

323
Q

What are the roles of the rete testis?

A
  • Mixing chamber for contents of the seminiferous tubules

- Reabsorption of protein from luminal contents

324
Q

How many efferent duct are present in the testis?

325
Q

Describe the histological appearance of the efferent ducts of the testis

A

Ducts lined by ciliated and non ciliated simple columnar epithelium with interspersed cuboidal basal cells giving a pseudostratified appearance

326
Q

How long is the epididymis?

A

4-5cm but highly convoluted so roughly 5m in tubular length

327
Q

Describe the histological appearance of the epididymis

A

Tube, lined by tall columnar cells with long atypical cilia. The epithelium is supported by a thick basement membrane, surrounding which is a well defined muscular coat

328
Q

What are the roles of the epididymis?

A
  • Absorption of testicular fluid
  • Phagocytosis
  • Production of secretions for spermatozoa maturation
329
Q

How long is the vas deferens?

330
Q

Describe the histological appearance of the vas deferens

A

Tube lined by pseudostratified columnar epithelium comprising columnar and basal cells. Thick muscular wall of 3 layers

331
Q

What are the lobes of the prostate?

A

Anterior, middle, posterior and two lateral

332
Q

What are the regions of the prostate?

A

Peripheral, central, transitional and peri-urethral gland regions

333
Q

How many acini are present within the prostate?

A

30-50 tubuloalveolar glands with convoluted edges

334
Q

What cells line the acini of the prostate?

A

Secretory cells, basal cells (form a continuous layer) and neuroendocrine cells

335
Q

What do secretory cells of the luminal side of the prostate gland secrete?

A

Phosphate-specific antigen, Acid phosphotases, citric acid, amylase, and other proteins

336
Q

What is the role of phosphate specific antigen?

A

Liquifies semen after ejaculation

337
Q

What structures are present in the stroma of the prostate?

A

Smooth muscle, fibroelastic fibres, blood vessels and nerves

338
Q

What cell type lines the seminal vesicles?

A

Tall non-ciliated columnar epithelium, containing vacuoles and lipofuscin

339
Q

How much of the ejaculate is formed of seminal vesicle secretion?

340
Q

What does seminal vesicle secretion contain?

A

Fructose, prostaglandins, proteins, amino acids, citric acid and vitamin C

341
Q

What is the role of the seminal vesicle?

A

Produce secretion to act as nutrients for the spermatozoa

342
Q

Where does the seminal vesicle duct drain into?

A

The ejaculatory duct

343
Q

What are the 3 components of the erectile tissue?

A

2 x Corpora cavernosa

Corpus spongiosum

344
Q

What is the corpora cavernosa?

A

Two richly vascular components of erectile tissue lying within the dorsal side of the penis.

345
Q

What is the copus spongiosum?

A

A component of erectile tissue on the inferior side of the penis and surrounding the urethra.

346
Q

Describe the histological appearance of erectile tissue

A

Irregular vascular spaces seperated by fibroelastic tissue and smooth muscle

347
Q

How is the ovary attached to the broad ligament?

A

The mesovary

348
Q

How is the ovary attached to the uterus?

A

The utero-ovarian ligament

349
Q

How is the ovary attached to the pelvic wall?

A

The suspensory ligament

350
Q

What is the outside layer of the ovary like?

A

A single layer of modified mesothelium

351
Q

What is the tunica albuginea in a female?

A

A poorly defined connective tissue layer in the ovary

352
Q

In which layer of the ovary are the ovarian folicles found?

A

The cortex

353
Q

Describe the histological appearance of the ovarian cortex

A

Spidle stromal cells arranged in whorls with ovarian follicles and some leutinised cells

354
Q

Describe the histological appearance of the ovarian medulla

A

Loose fibroelastic tissue with blood vessels, lymphatics and nerves.

355
Q

What is the rete ovarii?

A

An analogue of rete testis- present at the hilum of the ovary

356
Q

Where are primordial follicles found?

A

At the periphery of the cortex

357
Q

What is a primordial follicle made of?

A

A primary oocyte in a resting state, surrounded by a single layer of squamous epithelial cells (granulosa cells)

358
Q

In the menstrual cycle, how many primordial follicles begin to develop?

359
Q

What hormone controls the development of a primordial follicle into a primary follicle?

A

FSH from the anterior pituitary

360
Q

What changed happen to a primordial follicle when it becomes a primary follicle?

A
  • Oocyte enlarges
  • Follicular epithelial cells proliferate (granulosa cells)
  • Stromal cells become organised into connective tissue sheath
  • Zona pellucida forms directly around the oocyte
361
Q

What changes happen to a primary follicle when it becomes a secondary follicle?

A
  • Formation of the antrum (space filled with follicular fluid)
  • CT differentiates into inner Theca interna and outer Theca externa
  • Oocyte is supported in the antrum by a stalk of granulosa cells (cumulus oophorus)
362
Q

What is the the name of the stalk of granulosa cells that supports the oocyte in the antrum in a secondary follicle?

A

Cumulus oophorus

363
Q

What are the two layers of connective tissue in a secondary ovarian follicle?

A

Theca interna and theca externa

364
Q

What is the Theca interna of a secondary follicle?

A

The inner layer of stroma, comprising of stromal cells which have enlarged and contain lipid

365
Q

What do the stromal cells of the theca interna secrete?

366
Q

What is the theca externa of a secondary follicle?

A

The outer layer of the stroma comprising small stromal cells

367
Q

What is the corona radiata in a graafian follicle?

A

A layer of granulosa cells surrounding the oocyte

368
Q

What surrounds the ovum in a graafian follicle?

A

A thick zona pellucida

369
Q

How many primordial follicle are present at birth?

A

Approximately 1 million

370
Q

What hormone triggers ovulation?

A

Leutinising hormone

371
Q

What is leutinisation?

A

When the granulosa and theca cells become polygonal, bigger in size and have abundant cytoplasm containing lipid- occurs in the corpus luteum

372
Q

What does the secondary follicle develop into after ovulation?

A

Corpus luteum

373
Q

What hormones does the corpus luteum secrete?

A

Progesterone and oestrogen

374
Q

How many days after ovulation does regression of the corpus luteum occur?

375
Q

What characteristic changes occur to the corpus luteum during regression?

A
  • Granulosa cells decrease in size, develop pyknotic nuclei and accumulate abnormal lipid
  • Cells undergo dissolution and are phagocytosed
  • There is progressive fibrosis by ingrowth of connective tissue
376
Q

What does the corpus luteum regress into?

A

The corpus albicans

377
Q

What is the histological appearance of the corpus albicans?

A

A well circumscribed structure with convoluted borders, almost entirely composed of densely packed collagen with occasional follicles

378
Q

What are the roles of the fallopian tube?

A

To transport the ovum to the uterus

To be the site of fertilisation

379
Q

In which ligament does the fallopian tube run?

A

The broad ligament

380
Q

What are the 4 segments of the fallopian tube?

A
  • Intramural (inside uterine wall)
  • Isthmus (2-3cm, thick walled)
  • Ampulla (Expanded area)
  • Infundibulum (trumpet shaped opening to peritoneum, has fimbriae)
381
Q

What are the branching folds of the mucosa of the fallopian tubes called?

382
Q

What are the two cell types in the mucosa of the fallopian tube?

A

Secretory and ciliated

383
Q

Is the inner muscularis layer of the fallopian tube circular or longitudional?

384
Q

At which end of the fallopian tube are ciliated cells more prominant?

A

The ovarian end

385
Q

What are the three layers of the wall of the uterus?

A

Endometrium
Myometrium
Serosa

386
Q

What are the two layers of the endometrium of the uterus?

A

A deep basal layer- stratum basalis

A superficial functional layer- Stratum compactum (towards the surface) and stratum spongiosum

387
Q

What layer of the uterus is shed in menstruation?

A

The stratum spongiosum of the endometrium

388
Q

What hormone stimulates the proliferative phase of the menstrual cycle?

389
Q

How can the endometrium of the proliferative phase of the menstrual cycle be recognised histologically?

A

Straight proliferating glands with mitotic activity, no luminal secretions, stromal cells are spindled and compact

390
Q

What hormone stimulates the secretory phase of the menstrual cycle?

A

Progesterone

391
Q

How can the endometrium of the early secretory phase be recognised?

A

The epithelial cells of the endometrial glands contain vacuoles of glycogen

392
Q

How can the endometrium of the mid secretory phase be recognised?

A

The epithelial cells of the endometrial glands contain glycogen vacuoles above and below the nucleus and later intraluminal secretions. Glands are more rounded, stroma-oedema.

393
Q

How can the endometrium of the late secretory phase be recognised?

A

Elongated and saw-toothed endometrial glands with more intraluminal secretions. The stroma has spiral arterioles and decidual change.

394
Q

How can the endometrium of the menstrual phase be recognised?

A

Stromal haemorrhage and granulocytes

Stromal and glandular fragmentation

395
Q

What triggers the menstrual phase?

A

Progesterone stimulation being withdrawn

396
Q

What are the different phases of the endometrium in the menstrual cycle?

A

Proliferative
Secretory (early, mid, late)
Menstrual

397
Q

What is the muscular wall of the uterus?

A

Myometrium- 3 ill defined smooth muscle layers

Inner longitudinal, middle circular, outer longitudinal

398
Q

What are the two components of the cervix?

A

Endocervix and ectocervix

399
Q

Describe the histological appearance of the endocervix

A

Loose fibromuscular stroma lined by simpled columnar ciliated epithelium, thrown into crypts

400
Q

Describe the histological appearance of the ectocervix

A

Dense smooth muscle stroma lined by non-keratinised stratified squamous epithelium

401
Q

What is the site of the cervix which most cervical cancers occur?

A

The transformational zone (squamocolumnar junction)

402
Q

What epithelium lines the vagina?

A

Non keratinising stratified squamous epithelium

403
Q

How many muscular layers are there in the vagina?

A

2- inner circular and outer longitudinal

404
Q

What epithelium lines the labia majora?

A

Keratinising stratified squamous epithelium with skin adnexae

405
Q

What epithelium lines the labia minora?

A

Non-keratinising stratified squamous epithelium

406
Q

What are bartholin’s glands?

A

Tubuloalvolar glands in the vulva. Acini are lined by mucus-secreting epithelium

407
Q

What are minor vestibular glands?

A

Simple tubular glands lined by mucus-secreting epithelium in the vulva

408
Q

What are skein’s glands?

A

Female analogous to the prostate, lined by pseudostratifeid columnar epithelium

409
Q

What epithelium lines the hymen?

A

Non-keratinising squamous epithelium

410
Q

What is the clitoris?

A

Erectile tissue rich in blood vessels and nerves

411
Q

What are the functions of the skin?

A
  • Barrier to infection
  • Waterproofing
  • Thermoregulation
  • Protection against trauma
  • Protection against UV- light
  • Vitamin D synthesis
  • Sensation
412
Q

What is the outermost layer of the skin?

A

The epidermis stratum corneum

413
Q

What are the layers of the epidermis?

A

Stratum basale
Stratum spinosum
Stratum granulosum
Stratum corneum

414
Q

What are the two types of cells present in the stratum basale?

A

Basal epithelial cells (Stem cell population)

Melanocytes (Produce melanin)

415
Q

In which layer of the skin are melanocytes found?

A

The basal layer of the epidermis

416
Q

What is the approximate density of melanocytes?

A

1000-2000 per mm^2

417
Q

Where does melanin get transferred to after being synthesised?

A

To keratinocytes in melanosomes

418
Q

What hormones trigger the production of melanin?

A

MSH and ACTH

419
Q

What is the role of melanin?

A

To absorb ultraviolet light, protecting us from non-ionising radiation damage

420
Q

What alters the colour of someone’s skin?

A

The amount and type of melanin synthesised (NOT the number of melanocytes)

421
Q

Which layer of the epidermis is the largest?

A

Stratum spinosum

422
Q

What cells are present in the stratum spinosum?

A
  • Plump, polygonal keratinocytes with prominant intracellular adhesion
  • Langerhans cells- antigen recognition
  • Merkel cells- Sensory
423
Q

What cells are present in the stratum granulosum?

A

Flattened squames with an eosinophilic cytoplasm, containing haematoxophilic kerato-hyaline granules

424
Q

In which layer of the skin is keratin synthesised?

A

The stratum granulosum

425
Q

Describe the stratum corneum

A

The outermost acelullar layer of the skin with plates of keratin- thicker in the palms and soles of the feet (5 layers rather than 4 layers)

426
Q

What is the extra layer in the epidermis found between the stratum corneum and stratum granulosum at sites of abrasion?

A

Stratum lucidum

427
Q

What are epidermal adnexae?

A

Downgrowths of the epidermis into the dermis

428
Q

What is found within the epidermal adnexae?

A

Hair follicles
Sebaceous glands
Eccrine sweat glands
Apocrine sweat glands

429
Q

Where are sebaceous glands found?

A

Accompanying hair follicles

430
Q

What do sebaceous glands secrete?

A

Holocrine secretion (whole cells)- produces sebaceous secretion which lubricates and waterproofs hairs

431
Q

Where are apocrine glands found?

A

Armpit, groin, genitals, around the anus, in the ear - accompanying hair follicles

432
Q

Describe the histological appearance of apocrine glands

A

Simple, coiled, tubular glands, with an eosinophilic cytoplasm- with surface budding

433
Q

What do apocrine glands secrete?

A

An apocrine secretion- elements of the cytoplasm of the cells- pheromones ??

434
Q

What are the commonest type of sweat glands?

A

Eccrine glands

435
Q

What do eccrine glands secrete?

A

An eccrine (merocrine- exocytosis) secretion- thin and watery

436
Q

Described the histological appearance of eccrine glands

A

Coiled tubes, 2 cell layers thick- inner layer is secretory, outer layer is myoepithelial

437
Q

Where are eccrine sweat glands found?

A

Everywhere

438
Q

What are rete pegs/ridges?

A

Where the epidermis protrudes downwards into hte underlying dermis at the dermo-epidermal junction

439
Q

What is the papillary dermis?

A

The space between the rete pegs

440
Q

What is the thickest layer of the dermis?

A

The reticular dermis

441
Q

Where are the blood vessels and nerves of the skin found?

A

The dermis

442
Q

What is found within the dermis (8)?

A
  • Irregular loose connective tissue
  • Fibroblasts
  • Collagen
  • Glycosaminoglycan matrix
  • Blood vessels and lymphatics
  • Nerves
  • Sensory cells
  • Scattered inflammatory cells
443
Q

What can Meissner’s corpuscles detect?

A

Fine touch

444
Q

How long are meissner’s corpuscles?

A

30-140 micrometres

445
Q

What are meissner’s corpuscles?

A

Encapsulated unmylenated nerve endings that detect fine touch

446
Q

Where are meissner’s corpuscles found?

A

In the dermal papillae (especially in hairless skin)

447
Q

Describe the appearance of pacinian corpuscles

A

Large (1-4mm) long encapsulated sensory receptors- appear as concentric rings

448
Q

Where pacinian corpuscles found?

A

In the deep dermis

449
Q

What can pacinian corpuscles detect?

A

Vibration and tickle

450
Q

What is the subcutis formed of?

A

Adipose tissue and fibrovascular septa

451
Q

What are the roles of the subcutis?

A

Insulation
Shock-absorber
Food store

452
Q

Where do all the ducts of the breast empty?

A

At the nipple

453
Q

Describe the terminal duct lobular unit of the breast

A

Lobules arranged around a terminal duct, set in loose fibrous connective tissue

454
Q

What layers of cells line the ducts and lobules of the breast?

A

An outer myoepithelial layer

An inner columnar epithelial layer (Can adapt to produce milk)

455
Q

What are the common features of the endocrine organs?

A
  • Glandular epithelium
  • Richly vascularised
  • Secrete a variety of hormones
  • Controlled by positive and negative feedback loops
456
Q

What does the posterior pituitary store/secrete?

A

Oxytocin

Antidiuretic hormone

457
Q

Describe the histology of the anterior pituitary

A

Nested epithelial pituicytes in a richly vascular fibrous stroma. There are several different types of pituicyte but these are not distinguishable on H&E

458
Q

What percentage of pituicytes are somatotrophs and what do they secrete?

A

50%

Growth hormone

459
Q

What percentage of pituicytes are lactotrophs and what do they secrete?

A

25%

Prolactin

460
Q

What percentage of pituicytes are corticotrophs and what do they secrete?

A

15-20%

ACTH, alpha-MSH, beta-lipotrophin, beta-endorphin

461
Q

What percentage of pituicytes are gonadotrophs and what do they secrete?

A

10%

FSH and LH

462
Q

What percentage of pituicytes are thyrotrophs and what do they secrete?

A

1%

Thyroid stimulating hormone

463
Q

What stain allows you to see the nests of pituicytes within the anterior pituitary?

A

Reticulin stain

464
Q

Where are somatotrophs normally found within the anterior pituitary?

A

Primarily at the lateral wings, but can be found throughout

465
Q

Describe the histological appearance of lactotrophs

A

Polygonal cells with cytoplasmic processes that wrap around other cells

466
Q

Describe the histological appearance of thyrotrophs

A

Elongated cytoplasmic processes, that don’t wrap around other cells

467
Q

Describe the histological appearance and staining of gonadotrophs

A

Scattered round/oval cells that stain with either alpha subunit, beta LH or Beta FSH

468
Q

Describe the histological appearance and staining of corticotrophs

A

Round basophilic cells with large cytoplasmic vacuoles- enigmatic bodies. Tend to stain dark purple on H&E.

469
Q

Where are corticotrophs most likely to be found within the anterior pituitary?

A

The median of the gland

470
Q

What are susetentacular cells?

A

Supporting cells within the anterior pituitary that surround the normal follicles - S100 +ve

471
Q

What does the pineal gland secrete?

472
Q

How are the cells in the pineal gland arranged?

A

Pinealocytes are arranged in rosettes- a loose ring with central tissue and processes leading to a central capillary

473
Q

What is brain sand?

A

Areas of accumulation of calcium within the pineal gland

474
Q

What cells are present within the thyroid?

A

Follicular cells with colloid, and C cells

475
Q

What hormones does the thyroid produce?

A

Thyroxine and calcitonin

476
Q

What do thyroid follicular cells secrete?

A

Colloid and thyroxine

477
Q

What do follicular C cells secrete?

A

Calcitonin

478
Q

How many parathyroid glands are there usually?

479
Q

What hormone does the parathyroid glands secrete?

A

Parathyroid hormone (PTH)

480
Q

What are the three cell types present in the parathyroids?

A

Chief cells
Oxyphils
Adipocytes

481
Q

Describe the histological appearance of the parathyroid chief cells

A

Small polygonal cells with scant cytoplasm. No calcium oxalate crystals (unlike thyroid)

482
Q

What is the role of the parathyroid’s chief cells?

A

To secrete PTH, which raises the serum calcium using the bone, kidney and gut

483
Q

Describe the histological appearance of the parathyroid oxyphil cells

A

Large polygonal cells, that increase with age. Abundant eosinophilic cytoplasm that is finely granular.

484
Q

Where are the islets of Langerhans most prevalent?

A

The pancreatic tail

485
Q

Describe the histological appearance of the Islets of Langerhans

A

Large, pale staining balls of cells with a thin fibrous capsule

486
Q

What are the four cell types within the endocrine pancreas?

A

Beta cells
Alpha cells
Delta cells
PP cells

487
Q

What percentage of cells in the endocrine pancreas are beta cells and what do they secrete?

A

70%

Insulin

488
Q

What percentage of cells in the endocrine pancreas are alpha cells and what do they secrete?

A

20%

Glucagon

489
Q

What percentage of cells in the endocrine pancreas are delta cells and what do they secrete?

A

5-10%

Somatostatin

490
Q

What percentage of cells in the endocrine pancreas are PP cells and what do they secrete?

A

1-2%

Pancreatic polypeptide

491
Q

What are the three layers of the adrenal cortex (outside to inside)?

A

Zona glomerulosa
Zona fasciculata
Zona reticularis

492
Q

What does the zona glomerulosa of the adrenal cortex secrete?

A

Mineralocorticoids - Aldosterone

493
Q

What does the zona fasiculata of the adrenal cortex secrete?

A

Glococorticoids- Cortisol

494
Q

What does the zona Reticularis of the adrenal cortex secrete?

A

Androgenic steroids

495
Q

Which layer of the adrenal cortex is the thickest?

A

Zona fasciculata

496
Q

Describe the appearance and staining of the adrenal medulla

A

Centre of the adrenal gland, with chromaffin cells- large, polyhedral
S100 +ve

497
Q

What does the adrenal medulla secrete?

A

Adrenalin and noradrenalin

498
Q

What cells are embryonic skeletal muscle cells derived from?

499
Q

What is a syncytium?

A

Multiple embryonic myoblasts fuse to form multi-celled syncytium

500
Q

What is a myofibril?

A

Multiple sarcomeres joined end to end

501
Q

What is the average diametre of a skeletal muscle fibre?

A

50-60 Micrometres

502
Q

What is sarcoplasm?

A

Glycogen-rich cytoplasm in skeletal muscle

503
Q

What is sarcolemma?

A

The cell membrane of a muscle cell

504
Q

What is sarcoplasmic reticulum?

A

Endoplasmic reticulum in a muscle cell

505
Q

Describe the histological appearance of skeletal muscle

A

Elongated fibres with striated cytoplasm. Cells are multinucleate with their nuclei at the edges of the cell, and the cells are non-branching

506
Q

Why is striated muscle striated?

A

The myofibrils are in register!!!!!!!

507
Q

Which section of a sarcomere is dark?

A

The a-band (myosin)

508
Q

Which section of a sarcomere is light?

A

The i-band (actin)

509
Q

What are type 1 skeletal muscles?

A

Slow twitch fibres, rich in fibrillar ATPase - derive energy from oxidative phosphorylation, fatigue resistant

510
Q

What are type 2 skeletal muscles?

A

Fast twitch fibres, either derive energy from oxidative phosphorylation (Fatigue resistant), or glycolysis alone (fatiguable)

511
Q

Where are type 1 skeletal muscles fibres found?

A

Muscles for posture (fatigue resistant)

512
Q

Where are type 2 skeletal muscle fibres found?

A

Muscles for short bursts of power

513
Q

What are muscle spindles formed of ?

A

Intrafusal muscle fibres wrapped around by gamma efferent nerve fibres, and encased in a fibrocollagenous capsule

514
Q

What is the role of muscle spindles?

A

To detect stretch and tension

515
Q

What are the three types of connective tissue in skeletal muscle?

A

Endomysium, perimysium, epimysium

516
Q

What is the role of endomysium in skeletal muscle?

A

Holds together individual muscle fibres

517
Q

What is the role of perimysium in skeletal muscle?

A

Binds groups of fibres to form fasicles

518
Q

What is the role of epimysium in skeletal muscle?

A

Binds fasicles together

519
Q

What are the roles of sharpey’s fibres?

A

Bind epimysium of muscle to periosteum of bone

520
Q

What are sharpey’s fibres made of?

A

Bundles of collagen

521
Q

Where are sharpey’s fibres found?

A

In areas where a large area of muscle and bone are connected
e.g. rotator cuff muscles to the scapula

522
Q

Where are tendons found?

A

In areas where small areas of muscles and bone are connected
e.g. rotator cuff muscles to the humerus

523
Q

What are tendons made of?

A

Parallel bundles of collagen with intervening fibroblasts

524
Q

What are the four types of cells present in bone?

A

Osteoprogenitor cells
Osteoblasts
Osteocytes
Osteoclasts

525
Q

What is the extracellular matrix of the bone made of?

A

Collagen

Calcium hydroxyapatite

526
Q

What cell type are osteoblasts and osteocytes derived from?

A

Osteoprogenitor cells (embryonic mesenchyme)

527
Q

What do osteoblasts secrete?

A

Osteoid (unmineralised bone)

528
Q

How do osteocytes connect to surrounding cells?

A

Canaliculi

529
Q

What cell type are osteocytes derived from?

530
Q

Describe the histological appearance of osteoclasts

A

Large, multinucleated bones, sitting on the bone surface

531
Q

What are Howship’s lacunae?

A

Pits in the surface of bone which osteoclasts have absorbed

532
Q

What is the structure of primary and secondary bone?

A

Primary- woven (haphazard osteoid)

Secondary- lamellar (parallel sheets of osteoid, forms osteons)

533
Q

What are the two methods of bone formation?

A

Membranous

Endochondrial

534
Q

What are the two different types of gross appearance of bone?

A

Spongy/cancellous

Compact

535
Q

What is osteoid rich in?

A

Type I collagen
Glycosaminoglycans
Proteoglycans

536
Q

Where is woven bone commonly found?

A

Growing bone and fracture sites

537
Q

Is woven bone weak or strong?

538
Q

What is a haversian canal?

A

The centre of an osteon, containing blood vessels

539
Q

Which bones form via intramembranous ossification?

A

The flat bones of the skull and some cortical bone shafts

540
Q

When does intramembranous ossification begin in utero?

A

The second trimester

541
Q

What are the four layers that form during endochondrial ossification?

A

Resting cartilage
Zone of hyperplasia
Zone of hypertrophy
Zone of ossification

542
Q

Where is synovium found?

A

Lining the inside of the joint capsule

543
Q

How many layers of synovial cells are within a joint capsule?

A

1-4 layers

544
Q

What is the difference between type A and type B synovial cells?

A

Type A- phagocytes

Type B- Rich in rER

Functional Medicine (24 decks)

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