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Principles > Histology > Flashcards

Histology Flashcards

1
Q

What is the composition of a cell?

A 
80% water
15% protein
2.5% lipid
1.5% carbohydrate
1.1% inorganic
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2
Q

Embryonic cells have more water than old cells. T of F?

A

True

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3
Q

What makes up the cytoskeleton?

A

Mictofillaments
Microtubles
Intermediate fillaments

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4
Q

What is a microfilament?

A

Fine strands of actin which assemble into filaments and then dissociate (dynamic )
Fillamentous actin

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5
Q

What are microtubles?

A

Hollow
Composed of alpha and beta tubulin subunits
Can be assembled and disassembled
Initiate from a centromere and cnntain stabilising proteins
Polar- originate in the centre and radiate outwards

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6
Q

What are the functions of microtubules?

A

Cilia, flagella and mitotic spindles

Transport between membranes organelles and vesicles

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7
Q

Give 2 ATPases used to move things along microtubules?

A

Kinesin- moves things towards the periphery

Dynein- moves things towards the cell centre

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8
Q

What is the goli complex?

A

Flatterened membrane bound cicternaewith sub compartments

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9
Q

What is the function of the colgi complex

A

Vesicles arrive at the CIS face from SER/RER
Modify and pack macromolocules by adding sugar, splitting protein and sorting
Vesicles are emmitted from the TRANS face

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10
Q

What are intermediate fillaments?

A

A class of over 50 proteins wwhich bind intracellular elements to gather and to the plasma lemma

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11
Q

Where are the following intermediates found?

a) Neurofillaments
b) Glial fibrillary acidic proteins
c) desmin
d) Cytokeratins
e) vimentin
f) Filesin
g) lamin

A

a) Neurofillaments = nerve cells
b) Glial fibrillary acidic proteins = glial cells
c) desmin= muscle cells
d) Cytokeratins= Epithilial cells
e) vimentin = mesenchymal cells (connective tissue)
f) Filesin = Lens of the eye
g) lamin = nuclei of all cells
NB: can be used to identify the origins of tumours

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12
Q

How is the nucleus enclosed?

A

Nuclear envolope with an inner and outer nuclear membrane with nuclear pore

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13
Q

What is found between the nuclear membranes?

A

Perinuclear cistern which is continuous with the cistern of ER

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14
Q

What does the outer nuclear membrane extend to form?

A

ER and has ribosomes

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15
Q

What is contained within the nucleus?

A

DNA on chromosomes

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16
Q

WHat are the 2 types of chromosomes?

A

Euchromatin- DNA more dispersed and actively undergoing transcription
Heterochromatin- high condensed DNA not undergoing transcription

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17
Q

Where is tRNA and mRNA transcribed?

A

In the nucleus

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18
Q

Where is rRNA transcribed?

A

Nucleolus

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19
Q

What are inclusions?

A

Dispensable and transient

Vesicles containing components either synthesised by the cell or taken up form the ECF

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20
Q

What is an intercellular or occluding junction and what is its function?

A

Tight junction which appears as a focal region of close proximity between adjacent cell membranes
Prevent diffusion

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21
Q

What is a communicating junction?

A

Gap junction
A circular patch with hundreds of pores
Close association of cells

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22
Q

What forms the pores in gap junctions?

A

Connexion proteins

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23
Q

What is the function of communicating junctions?

A

Allow selective diffusion of molecules between adjacent cells

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24
Q

What are the 2 types of anchoring junctions?

A

Adherent junctions

Desmosomes

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25
Q

What forms adherent junction?

A

Transmembrane cadherin molecules bind to each oter in the extracellular space and through link molecules to the actin of the cytoskeleton

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26
Q

What is the function of adherent junctions?

A

Link sub actin bundles between adjacent cells

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27
Q

What is the function of desmosomes?

A 
Link sub membrane intermediate fillaments of adjacent cells
Mechanical support (skin)
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28
Q

How are desmosomes formed?

A

Using desmocollin and desmoglein

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29
Q

Why do the membranes spread out in anchoring junctions?

A

To allow for extracellular membrane proteins and their binding in the extra cellular space

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30
Q

What are the characteristics of the plasma lemma?

A

Amphipathic phospholipid molecules
Contain peripheral and integral proteins
Cholesterol adds strength
Can endo and exo cytose materia
Fluid- membrane proteins can diffuse laterally but many are anchored in place
Selectively permeable
Trilaminar appearance

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31
Q

Where are ribosomes formed?

A

Nucleolus

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32
Q

What is the sanction of the small and large subunit in a ribosome?

A

Smallbinds to mRNA

Large cataylses a peptide bond

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33
Q

What is a junctional complex?

A

Close association of several types of junction. Found in epithilial tissue

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34
Q

What is the function of the RER?

A

Synthesing proteins for insertion into the membrane (initiates glycoprotein formation)

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35
Q

What is the function of SER?

A

Continues processing of proteins form the RER. SIte of lipid synthesis

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36
Q

Where are proteins for the cytosol produced?

A

Free flating polysomes containing ribosomes in the cytoplasm

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37
Q

What are the functions of mitochondria?

A

Respiration and oxiadtive phosphorylation
Synthesise cirtain lipids and proteins
Contain there own DNA for lipid and protein production

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38
Q

What are the 3 salivary glands?

A

Parotid, submandibular and sublingual

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39
Q

What type of glands are the salivary glands?

A

Exocrine glands as there are many ducts

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40
Q

What secretions are made by the salivary glands?

A

Serous (water and enzymes

Mucus

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41
Q

What characterises the parotid gland?

A

Almost all serous secreting cells
Long duct as watery solution will travel further
Located furthest from the oral cavity

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42
Q

What characterises the sublingual gland?

A

Mostly mucus secreting cells

Shorter ducts, closer to the oral cavity

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43
Q

What characterises submandibular gland?

A

Secretes mucus and serous

Located at a middle distance from the oral cavity

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44
Q

What cells make up salivary glands?

A

Epithilial cells

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45
Q

What are the salivary ducts striated?

A

Mitochondrial arrangement which provide ATP for molecular pumps in the membrane.
They modify saliva by removing salt so saliva is hypotonic to blood

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46
Q

What are the 3 layers of the digestive tract proper?

A

Mucosa - epithilium, lamina propria (lose connective tissue) and muscularis mucosa
SUbmucosa- loose connective tissue
Muscularis externa- longitudinal and circular muscle layers
Serosa or Adventitia- outer later of connective tissue

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47
Q

What is the protective epithilium in the GI tract and where is it found?

A

Non keratitinised stratified squamous epithilium

Found in the oral cavity, pharynx, oesophagus and anal canal

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48
Q

What is the secretory epithilium in the GI tract and where is it found?

A

Simple columnar epithilium with many tubular glands

Stomach

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49
Q

What is the absorptive epithilium in the GI tract and where is it found?

A

Simple columnar epithilium with villi and tubular glands

Small intestine

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50
Q

What is the protective and absorptive epithilium in the GI tract and where is it found?

A

Simple columnar epithilium with tubular glands

Large intestine

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51
Q

Where are the neurons found in the GI tract?

A

In ganglia between the circular and longitudinal muscle layers of the muscularis externa

52
Q

What are the 3 layers of tissue in the tracheal walls?

A

Respiratory epithilium- produce mucus and cilla
Lamina propria- lose connective tissue
Hyaline cartilage- tracheal ring

53
Q

What is the difference between bronchi and bronchioles?

A

Bronchi have hyaline acartilage in walls and bronchioles have smooth muscle

54
Q

How does the columnar epithilium change as you go further down the respiratory tree?

A

Gets shorter

55
Q

What type of cell lines alvioli?

A

Simple squamous epithilial cells

56
Q

What type of cells make up the liver?

A

Mostly epithilial but some connective tissue

57
Q

What arrangement are liver lobules?

A

Hexagonal

58
Q

Each lobulue has what?

A

A branch of the hepatic artery, hepatic portal vein and billary duct
Portal triad

59
Q

In the liver, what does blood travel from the periphery to the centre in?

A

Hepatic sinusoids passing sheets of cells called hepatocytes

60
Q

What is a sinusoid?

A

A space for blood to flow

61
Q

What is the function of the liver?

A

To create bile

To clean and filter the blood

62
Q

What does the exocrine pancreas produce?

A

Pancreatic juice in the duct cells
Pancreatic enzymes in the acinar cells: Lipase, amylase, proteases (Trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen and procarboxypeptidase A and B)

63
Q

What does the endocrine pancreas produce?

A

Islets of langerhans.
Alpha cells produce glucagon
Beta cells produce insulin
Delta cells produce somatostatin

64
Q

Explai how a tissue is prepared to observe under the microscope?

A

1) Tissue is fixed to preserve it in a life like state, usually in a chemical that cross links protein such as formalin is used- stops decay
2) Tissue is thinly sliced to allow light to penetrate (1-15 microns)
3) Impregnate tissue with a support material like wax (thi is not necessary for blood cells or cell smears)
4) Tissue is dehydrated, put into oorganic solvent and placed into hot wax until it has fully penetrated
5) Thin sections are cut on a microtone and put onto slides, the wax is washed out and the tissue rehydrated.

65
Q

What is a common stain in histology?

A

H&E
Haematoxylin is a basic dye with affinity for acid molocules and stains then purple/blue eg nucleus/ribosomes
Eosin is an acidic dye with an affinity for basic molecules and stains them pink/red. Most proteins are basic

66
Q

Nervous tissue: What are the 3 main types of neurone?

A

Multipolar- many dendrites and one axon (most common
Bipolar- one dendrite and one axon
Pseudo unipolar- Short processes and axon in both directions

67
Q

Nervous tissue: What is the ratio of neurones to glia?

A

1 neurone:10 glia

68
Q

Nervous tissue: This is surrounded by a connective tissue coat. What is this called in the CNS and PNS?

A 
CNS = meninges
PNS = epineurum
69
Q

Nervous tissue: What are the 3 types of glia and their functions?

A

Asterocytes - support ion transport and induce the blood brain barrier
Oligodendrocytes - produce myelin in the brain and spinal cord
Microglia - Provide immune surveillance

70
Q

Bone: What cells make up bone?

A

Osteocytes

71
Q

What are the 2 types of bone in a long bone?

A

Cortical bone- dense outer shell that makes up the shaft- diaphysis
Cancellous/trabecular bone- occupies the epiphysis of the bone

72
Q

What are the small canals called in bone which allow blood and nerves to enter the bone?

A

Haversian canals

73
Q

Connective tissue: What makes up connective tissue?

A

Extracellular matrix and cells

74
Q

Connective tissue: What is the extracellular matrix?

A

molecules secreted by the cells that provide structural and biochemical support to surrounding cells

75
Q

What makes up the extracellular matrix?

A

Fibres: collagen, reticular and elastic fibres
Ground substance: amorphous, space occupying material made of glycosaminoglygans (unbranched polysaccharide molecules) bound to proteins (forming glycoproteins)
Tissue fluid

76
Q

What are the cells found in connective tissue and what is ther function?

A

Fibroblasts: widely distributed that produce and maintain the extracellular matrix
Adipose cells: fat cells found in connective tissue
Osteocytes- bone cells
Chondrocytes- cells of cartilage

77
Q

What are the 2 types of soft connective tissue?

A

Loose: loosely packed fibres separated by abundant ground substance. plentiful cells
Dense: Densely packed bundles of collagen fibres.
-dense regular if the cells are aligned- tendon
-dense irregular if fibre bundles run in many directions- dermis of skin

78
Q

What is hard connective tissue?

A

Cartilage

79
Q

What are the characteristics of cartilage?

A

Strong flexible compressable semi ridgid tissue
Semi ridgid as ground substance is highly hydrated
Avascular- receives nutrients from adjacent tissues by diffusion through the matrix

80
Q

What are the 3 types of cartilage defined by the extracellular matrix?

A

Hyaline, aleastic and fibro cartilage

81
Q

What makes up hyaline cartilage and where is it found?

A

Chondrocytes and cartilage matrix

Found at articular surfaces/ tracheal rings/ coastal cartilage and epiphyseal growth plates

82
Q

What is the function of epithilium?

A

Covers the surface of the body
lines hollow organs
forms glands

83
Q

Wht are the features of epithilial cells?

A

All attached to the basal lamina- a layer of extracellular components
All nonvascular and obtain nutrients from capillaries in underlying tissue which diffuse across the basal lamina
Polarised cells with a basal and apical surface

84
Q

What are the functions of epithilia?

A 
mechanical barrier- skin
chemical barrier- stomch
Absorption- intestine 
secretion- glands
containment - bladder
locomotion- cillia
85
Q

What are the types of covering epithilial cells?

A

Simple, stratified or pseudostratified

Squamous, cuboidal or columnar

86
Q

What are the two types of glandular epithilium?

A

Endocrine: products secreted towards the basal lamina and diffuse into capillaries for distribution- ductless glands (pituitary gland)
Exocrine: products secreted towards the apical end of the cell into the lumen, duct or body surface. Duncted glands (salivary gland)

87
Q

What are the 3 types of muscle?

A

Skeletal, smooth and cardiac muscle

88
Q

What causes striations in skeletal muscle?

A

Arrangement of actin and myosin

89
Q

What are the characteristics of smooth muscle?

A

Involuntary, visceral
No striations
Individual fibres are elongated spindle shaped cells
Cigar shaped nucleus in the centre of each fibre

90
Q

What are the characteristics of skeletal muscle?

A

Striated, voluntary
Giant multiucleated cylindrical cells- long
Many elongated nuclei at the periphery of the cell within the sarcolemma

91
Q

What are the characteristics of cardiac muscle?

A

Striated but less prominent
Fibres are shorter than skeletal muscle and branch to form complex networks
Single nucleus at the centre of each fibre
Contain intercollated discs

92
Q

What is an intercollated disc?

A

FOund in cardiac muscle and pass across the fibres at irregular intervals- end to end attachment between cells with multiple intercellular junctions for mechanical integrity

93
Q

Where is cardiac muscle found?

A

Walls of the heart and origin of great vessels

94
Q

What are the 3 layers of blood vessels?

A

Tunica intima- singel layer of squamous epithilial cells (endothilium) supported by a basal lamina
Tunica media- Some connective tissue but mostly mooth muscle orientated circumfrentially
Tunica adventicia- made of supporting connective tissue and blend with connective tissue around it

95
Q

Blood vessels contain 2 elastic membranes- what are these?

A

internal elastic membrane- separates tunica intima from tunica media
External elastic membrane which sepates the media from the adventicia

96
Q

What is an elastic artery?

A

Some of the smooth muscle in the tunica media is replaced with elastic tissue which provides elastic reciol to maintain BP

97
Q

How do large arteries gain a blood supply?

A

Vaso vasorum- they cannot obtain nutrients from the lumen of vessels

98
Q

Characteristics of arterioles?

A

1-2 layers of smooth muscle in the media and no adveticia.

Control blood flow to the tissues

99
Q

WHat are the 3 tyes of capillaries and where are they found?

A

Continuous- no pores found in muscle, nerve, lung and skin
Fenestrated- small pores ~50 nm found in the gut mucosa, endocrine glands and kidney
Discontinuous/sinusoidal- larger gaps found in the liver, spleen and bone marrow

100
Q

What is the function of capillaries?

A

Smallest blood vessels responsible for microcirculation

101
Q

What is the function of post capillary venuoles?

A

Endothilial cells lined with a thin layer of connective tissue.
Site for exchange allowing WBCs to to enter the tissues

102
Q

When does a post capillary venuole become a venuole?

A

WHen some smooth muscle cells are found in the tunica media

103
Q

What are the characteristics of veins?

A

Tunica intima, thin tunica media but no obvios tunica adventicia except large veins like SVC and IVC.
Valves- folds in the tunica intima to prevent back flow

104
Q

Which veins have longitudinal bundles of smooth muscle?

A

Large veins

105
Q

What characterises lymph vessels?

A

Thin walled- look like capillaries but much larger

Valves

106
Q

What is the function of lymph vessels?

A

Transport lymph to lymph nodes fro immune survaelence

107
Q

Lymphatics have no central pump- what causes flow?

A

Hydrostatic pressure
Compression of vessels due to skeletal muscle contraction
Smooth muscle
Valves

108
Q

What percentage of blood is cells?

A

45% Erythrocytes, leukocytes and platelets

109
Q

Which cells are granulocytes?

A

Neutrophils, basophils and eosinophils

110
Q

Which cells are agranulocytes?

A

Lymphocytes and monocytes

111
Q

How is blood separated?

A

Centrifugation

1) The erythrocytes are densest and after spinning form a pelet
2) The leucocytes are next with platelets and are found above the buffy coat
3) Plasma is the liquid portion at the top-supernatent

112
Q

What is the difference between plasma and serum?

A

Serum has had the clotting factors removed by allowing the blood to clot and removing the clot before spinning the blood

113
Q

What are the characteristics of erythrocytes?

A

Biconcave shape, 7 microns diamer, 1/3 of the volume is haemoglobin
Network of flexible cytoskeleton elements allowing them to deform
mature cells do not have a nucleus or organelles (immature cells in the bone marrow do have these)

114
Q

What is the life span of a RBC?

A

120 days- old cells are removed by spleen and liver

115
Q

What are the characteristics of neutrophils?

A

Granulocytes but these stain poorly with acid and basic dyes
Multilobed nucleus
Short lived- bone marrow produces lots
40-75% of leukocytes

116
Q

What are the characteristics of eosinophils?

A

5% of leukocytes
Granulocytes- basic granules with an affinity for acidic dyes- stain pink/red. Contain hydrolytic enzymes
Bilobed nucleus
Important in allergic reaction and parasitic/worm infections

117
Q

What are the characteristics of basophils?

A

Granulocytes- acidic granules with an affinity for basic dyes- stain purple/blue. Contain histamine, heparin and other proinflamatory mediators- respond to allergens
Bilobed nucleus
High affinity for IgE receptors

118
Q

What are the characteristics of monocytes?

A

Precursor to macrophages
Largest blood cells
Kidney bean shaped nucleus
Tissue resident

119
Q

WHat are the characteristics of lymphocytes?

A

No visible granules, little cytoplasm and a round nucleus

T and B cells cannot be distinguished down a mcroscope

120
Q

What are the characteristics of platelets?

A

Small cell fragments- 2microns diameter
Some have organelles but no nucleus
Involved in hemostasis (prevention of blood loss)
Have granules with coagulation factors

121
Q

What is thrombocytosemia?

A

Low platelets

122
Q

Where is the earliest site for erythrocyte formation?

A

Yolk sac at 3 weeks. In the second trimester the liver is the main site for hemopoiesis

123
Q

Where are hemopoietic stem cells found in a foetus?

A

Liver and spleen

124
Q

Where does hemopoiesis occur at birth?

A

All the bones

125
Q

At maturity, where does hemopoiesis take place?

A

Vertebrae, ribs, skull, pelvis, proximal femurs.
Marrow in other bones is mainly adipose tissue but in an emergency can begin blood cell formation
Red marrow = blood
Yellow marrow = Fat

126
Q

Which cells produce platelets?

A

Megakaryocytes- found in the bone marrow
Characterised by a very large nucleus as it undergoes duplication of nuclear material but not cell division
Platelets form as extensions at the outer margins of the cell which fragment from the cell

Principles (12 decks)

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