HIST 215 weeks 6-10 Flashcards
1
Q
Preconditions to the Industrial Revolution
A
Demographic revolution
- European population increase of 43% from 1800 to 1850
- highest population growth in industrializing Northwest Europe (Britain’s population tripled)
- population of agricultural countries (Sweden, Russia, Balkans) also doubled or tripled
2
Q
Negative factors of industrial revolution
A
- Cholera between 1830s and 1890s
- Famine (Irish potato famine of 1840s killed 1-2 million)
- tuberculosis
3
Q
Positive factors of industrial revolution
A
- improving public health
- vaccination (smallpox) increased life expectancy
- decrease of mortality rates
- dramatically increase population despite falling birth rates
4
Q
Stratification of Middle Class
A
- bankers, industrialists, top merchants, top government officials, civil servants
- lawyers, doctors, mid-level civil servants
- petty bourgeoisie: shopkeepers, school teachers, craftsmen, etc.
5
Q
bourgeois masculinity + femininity
A
- preserved a lot of the qualities of previous ages: chivalry + new concepts like physical strength
- tru middle class man can support family and wife doesn’t have to work (if you couldnt then you werent a man at all)
- femininity defined in two ways: didn’t work, were pure (compared against prostitutes, bohemians, artists)
6
Q
middle class education
A
- middle class created educational institutes to solidify status quo
- instrument of social control and stratification as well as path for upward social mobility (double-headed animal)
-hierarchy of institutions–> remnant of this elitist education system (democratic yet elitist = achievement of middle class)
7
Q
churches of the middle class
A
museums, theatres, and banks
- Madeleine
- Musée des Beaux-Arts in Budapest
- Imperial Austrian Palace turned museum in Vienna
- Louvre (palace turned museum)
- Bank of England
-neo-classic, Greek –> quintessential of 19th century bourgeois style, combination of historic styles
8
Q
Liberalism + social question
A
- “In Liberalism, the middle class found an economic and political theory that echoed the way they viewed the world.”
- In politics: gradual broadening of the electoral base, depending on property and education; rights of man replaced by legally defined freedoms
- In economic theory: laissez faire (Adam Smith), “invisible hand”
In political theory: Jeremy and utilitarianism
John Stuart Mill, extension of political rights (including women) and social welfare - concerned with the social question as far as it threatened the existing social order –> offered solutions that gradually made the living conditions better
9
Q
Paradoxes of 1815-1848
A
socio-economic - industrial revolution, urbanization, and rising middle class vs. pauperization and mass emigration
political
- restoration/reaction vs revolutionary stirrings
ideological
- conservatism, liberalism, socialism, nationalism
10
Q
objectives of nationalism
A
from cultural and linguistic autonomy to national independence to the unification/creation of the nation state
11
Q
demands from 1848 revolutions
A
- constitution
- representative government
- political freedoms
- abolition of feudal privileges
- in France: universal manhood suffrage
12
Q
Legacy of 1848
A
- polarization and defeat
- crucial political legacies
- revolutionary exiles
- end of common european path (w/ england)
- beginning of German and Italian unification, under moderate or conservative monarchist leadership (bc republican options fail)
- Habsburg monarchy’s fundamental structural problems revealed
- continuing historical legacy of symbols and gestures, literary vocabulary, of revolution and defeat
- national and republican revolutionary leaders
13
Q
France after 1848 (Louis Bonaparte)
A
- elected president for 4 years in December 1848
- 1851: Assembly refused to allow him to have a second term so he staged a coup d’état (referendum approved by 92%) and was president for 10 yeas
- 1852: crowned “Emperor of the French”, second empire lasted until 1870
- he was an adventurer in foreign policy, instrumental in France’s industrialization
14
Q
Russia after 1848 (Crimean War)
A
- defeated in Crimean War (1853-56) by GB, France, Ottoman Empire, and Piedmont-Sardinia
- leads to reforms of 1860s –> emancipation of the serfs and judicial reform BUT no constitution of elected assembly
15
Q
Unification of Italy
A
- rise of Sardinia-Piedmont and Prime Minister Camilo Cavour –> economic and foreign policy
- radical-democratic alternative: Giuseppe Garibaldi and “the thousands”
- reality: Sardinia-Piedmont absorbs (colonizes) the South into moderate-liberal monarchy
- limited constitutional democracy, limited franchise and broad powers of Prime Minister
- political life fragmented due to a multitude of parties
- aggressive nationalism emerged around 1890s (based on African colonial aims)
16
Q
Unification of Germany
A
- post Vienna settlement –> German Confederation
- limited economic integration through the Zollverein (customs union) with continuing political divisions
- democratic, republic attempts and ideas for unification failed in 1848, Prussia and “small German” solution, without Austria, emerges as leader
- William I appoints Otto von Bismarck as Prime Minister, breaks Parliament’s deadlock and engineers unification through three wars
- 1864: Prussia+Austria > Denmark
- 1866: Prussia > Austria
- 1870: Prussia > France
- 1866: German Confederation dissolved, German states north of Main river form North German Confederation
- January 1871: William I proclaimed emperor of German 2nd Reich
17
Q
Austro-Hungarian Monarchy and compromise
A
- multi-ethnic empire survives despite the era of nation-states
- defeat of Austria by Prussia leads to negotiations with Hungarian liberals
- 1867 compromise creates Dual Monarchy with two ruling nations (Austrian-Germans and Hungarians), each with its own limited parliamentary system and common ruler but leaves other nationalities out
- South German states join North German Confederation after Franco-Prussian war
- Francis Joseph gives up his absolutist power to make this compromise
- two ruling nations over many ethnic minorities
- built-in instability amplified by rising ethnic nationalism, Russian Pan-Slavism and Balkan conflicts with Serbia
18
Q
Result of Franco-Prussian war
A
- Paris Commune, republic, and presidential system in France
- ends Second Empire and Napoleon III
- South German states join North German Confederation
19
Q
Russia (post 1848 era)
A
- remains an absolute state
- Political opposition of students and intellectuals –> Dostoyevsky, terrorist groups, Social Democrats (from 1890s)
- Russian imperialism –> conquest in Central Asia and Siberia brings conflict with Ottoman Empire, Japan, and Great Britain
- Russification, official anti-Semitism, and Pan-Slavism
20
Q
Legacy of post-1848 period
A
- New German Empire becomes the economic powerhouse of Europe
- French Republic survives
- Parliamentary Democracy and its limits in pre-1914 Europe
- multi-ethnic empires (Habsburg, Ottoman, Russian) and the nationalities question create ongoing tensions
- liberal-democratic ideals of 1848 abandoned wholesale for nationalism and Realpolitik
21
Q
Triple Alliance vs. Dual Alliance vs. Entente Cordiale
A
Triple Alliance: Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy (1882)
Dual Alliance: France and Russia (1894)
Entente Cordiale: Great Britain and France (1904)
22
Q
The Balkans / Ottoman Empire –> Nation States
A
- Congress of Berlin in 1878 leads to the independence of Serbia and Romania and the autonomy of Bulgaria; Austria-Hungary gets administration of Bosnia-Herzegovina
- Austria-Hungary annexes Bosnia-Herzegovina in 1908
- 1912-1913: Two Balkan Wars
1. Greece + Serbia + Bulgaria against Ottoman Empire
2. Bulgaria against Serbia, Greece, and Romania - ends Ottoman Empire, independent Albania
23
Q
Russo-Japanese War
A
- 1904 war with Japan over interest in Far East, ended in shocking degear
- Japan emerged as new imperial power with control over Korea and Manchuria
- in Russia: strikes, mutinies, outrage over military defeat, Bloody Sunday, massacre by the army led to 1905 revolution
- broad coalition of workers in St. Petersburg and Moscow, Soviets (worker’s councils), liberals, and students
- Emperor’s October Manifesto allowed elected assembly (Duma) and political parties
- elected Duma had a consultative role, but the autocratic government continued
- Social Democrats were exiled to Siberia or West
24
Q
1917 Revolution
A
February 1917: Bourgeois revolution
- Provisional government of liberal socialists and liberals continues war
- “Dual power” with Petrograd Soviet, informal assembly of workers, soldiers, and intellectuals
October 1917: Bolshevik Takeover
- demand power for Soviets and peace
Lenin
- democratic centralism
- communism in the least advanced country
- bourgeois revolution into a proletarian once
25
Q
Russian Civil War (1917-1922)
A
- Constituent Assembly dissolved on its first day in 1918
- Brest-Litovsk treaty, March 1918 –> loss of all Western territories
- White Army and local nationalist governments come close to defeating Bolshevik government
- War Communism (nationalization and confiscation of all resources)
- Cheka –> political police with unlimited powers against “enemies of the revolution”
- Allied troops in Far East
- Separate War with Poland until 1921, treaty divides up Ukraine
- 1922: Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
26
Q
New Economic Policy (1921-1928)
A
- limited private enterprise, establishes pattern of economic but not political liberalization
- turn back program of extreme nationalism
- allow free trade (not all controlled by government like in War Communism)
27
Q
“Revolution from above”
A
- 5 year plans (forced industrialization, collectivization of agriculture)
- central planning
- Terror against kulaks (well off farmers who refused to hand over grain)
- political and social “enemies”
28
Q
What made the Fascist and Nazi Takeovers possible? (8 points)
A
- Transformation of political life after the war (violence, rise of paramilitary organizations)
- party of devoted supporters (highly organized, centralized, easily mobilized)
- extreme nationalism, , fuelled by defeat and dissatisfaction with post-war settlements
- disenchantment in liberal political institutions, especially among middle middle class, and demand for strong leaders
- economic crises: hyperinflation to Great Depression
- political polarization and divisions within the left
- masterful use of propaganda and intimidation of political enemies
- combination of use and abuse of parliamentary procedure and extra-parliamentary intimidation (black shirts and storm troopers, SA)
29
Q
What made Fascist, Nazi, and Stalinist regimes and leaders so popular?
A
- offered ready answers to social and political problems and frustrations
- reached into every segment of society, controlling every aspect of public and even private life (codified laws against gay men, Hitler Youth)
- introduced pro-natalist and racial measures as solutions, idea of creating perfect children
30
Q
Theory: Fascism, Nazism, and Communism ARE Totalitarian governments
A
- extremist ideologies, political terror, lack of political freedoms, mass politics, cult of leader, modernizing function, emphasis on mass politics
- totalitarian art
- striking parallels in cult of leader, propaganda, representative architecture and art (elaborate staging, transformation of cities)
31
Q
Theory: Fascism, Nazism, and Communism ARE NOT Totalitarian government
A
- differences in ideologies: radicial policies more important in Nazism, modernization is more important in Fascism
