HIST 215 weeks 6-10

Question 1

Preconditions to the Industrial Revolution

Answer 1

Demographic revolution

• European population increase of 43% from 1800 to 1850
• highest population growth in industrializing Northwest Europe (Britain’s population tripled)
• population of agricultural countries (Sweden, Russia, Balkans) also doubled or tripled

Question 2

Negative factors of industrial revolution

Answer 2

• Cholera between 1830s and 1890s
• Famine (Irish potato famine of 1840s killed 1-2 million)
• tuberculosis

Question 3

Positive factors of industrial revolution

Answer 3

• improving public health
• vaccination (smallpox) increased life expectancy
• decrease of mortality rates
• dramatically increase population despite falling birth rates

Question 4

Stratification of Middle Class

Answer 4

• bankers, industrialists, top merchants, top government officials, civil servants
• lawyers, doctors, mid-level civil servants
• petty bourgeoisie: shopkeepers, school teachers, craftsmen, etc.

Question 5

bourgeois masculinity + femininity

Answer 5

• preserved a lot of the qualities of previous ages: chivalry + new concepts like physical strength
• tru middle class man can support family and wife doesn’t have to work (if you couldnt then you werent a man at all)
• femininity defined in two ways: didn’t work, were pure (compared against prostitutes, bohemians, artists)

Question 6

middle class education

Answer 6

• middle class created educational institutes to solidify status quo
• instrument of social control and stratification as well as path for upward social mobility (double-headed animal)

-hierarchy of institutions–> remnant of this elitist education system (democratic yet elitist = achievement of middle class)

Question 7

churches of the middle class

Answer 7

museums, theatres, and banks

• Madeleine
• Musée des Beaux-Arts in Budapest
• Imperial Austrian Palace turned museum in Vienna
• Louvre (palace turned museum)
• Bank of England

-neo-classic, Greek –> quintessential of 19th century bourgeois style, combination of historic styles

Question 8

Liberalism + social question

Answer 8

• “In Liberalism, the middle class found an economic and political theory that echoed the way they viewed the world.”
• In politics: gradual broadening of the electoral base, depending on property and education; rights of man replaced by legally defined freedoms
• In economic theory: laissez faire (Adam Smith), “invisible hand”
  In political theory: Jeremy and utilitarianism
  John Stuart Mill, extension of political rights (including women) and social welfare
• concerned with the social question as far as it threatened the existing social order –> offered solutions that gradually made the living conditions better

Question 9

Paradoxes of 1815-1848

Answer 9

socio-economic
- industrial revolution, urbanization, and rising middle class vs. pauperization and mass emigration

political
- restoration/reaction vs revolutionary stirrings

ideological
- conservatism, liberalism, socialism, nationalism

Question 10

objectives of nationalism

Answer 10

from cultural and linguistic autonomy to national independence to the unification/creation of the nation state

Question 11

demands from 1848 revolutions

Answer 11

• constitution
• representative government
• political freedoms
• abolition of feudal privileges
• in France: universal manhood suffrage

Question 12

Legacy of 1848

Answer 12

• polarization and defeat
• crucial political legacies
• revolutionary exiles
• end of common european path (w/ england)
• beginning of German and Italian unification, under moderate or conservative monarchist leadership (bc republican options fail)
• Habsburg monarchy’s fundamental structural problems revealed
• continuing historical legacy of symbols and gestures, literary vocabulary, of revolution and defeat
• national and republican revolutionary leaders

Question 13

France after 1848 (Louis Bonaparte)

Answer 13

• elected president for 4 years in December 1848
• 1851: Assembly refused to allow him to have a second term so he staged a coup d’état (referendum approved by 92%) and was president for 10 yeas
• 1852: crowned “Emperor of the French”, second empire lasted until 1870
• he was an adventurer in foreign policy, instrumental in France’s industrialization

Question 14

Russia after 1848 (Crimean War)

Answer 14

• defeated in Crimean War (1853-56) by GB, France, Ottoman Empire, and Piedmont-Sardinia
• leads to reforms of 1860s –> emancipation of the serfs and judicial reform BUT no constitution of elected assembly

Question 15

Unification of Italy

Answer 15

• rise of Sardinia-Piedmont and Prime Minister Camilo Cavour –> economic and foreign policy
• radical-democratic alternative: Giuseppe Garibaldi and “the thousands”
• reality: Sardinia-Piedmont absorbs (colonizes) the South into moderate-liberal monarchy
• limited constitutional democracy, limited franchise and broad powers of Prime Minister
• political life fragmented due to a multitude of parties
• aggressive nationalism emerged around 1890s (based on African colonial aims)

Question 16

Unification of Germany

Answer 16

• post Vienna settlement –> German Confederation
• limited economic integration through the Zollverein (customs union) with continuing political divisions
• democratic, republic attempts and ideas for unification failed in 1848, Prussia and “small German” solution, without Austria, emerges as leader
• William I appoints Otto von Bismarck as Prime Minister, breaks Parliament’s deadlock and engineers unification through three wars
• 1864: Prussia+Austria > Denmark
• 1866: Prussia > Austria
• 1870: Prussia > France
• 1866: German Confederation dissolved, German states north of Main river form North German Confederation
• January 1871: William I proclaimed emperor of German 2nd Reich

Question 17

Austro-Hungarian Monarchy and compromise

Answer 17

• multi-ethnic empire survives despite the era of nation-states
• defeat of Austria by Prussia leads to negotiations with Hungarian liberals
• 1867 compromise creates Dual Monarchy with two ruling nations (Austrian-Germans and Hungarians), each with its own limited parliamentary system and common ruler but leaves other nationalities out
• South German states join North German Confederation after Franco-Prussian war
• Francis Joseph gives up his absolutist power to make this compromise
• two ruling nations over many ethnic minorities
• built-in instability amplified by rising ethnic nationalism, Russian Pan-Slavism and Balkan conflicts with Serbia

Question 18

Result of Franco-Prussian war

Answer 18

• Paris Commune, republic, and presidential system in France
• ends Second Empire and Napoleon III
• South German states join North German Confederation

Question 19

Russia (post 1848 era)

Answer 19

• remains an absolute state
• Political opposition of students and intellectuals –> Dostoyevsky, terrorist groups, Social Democrats (from 1890s)
• Russian imperialism –> conquest in Central Asia and Siberia brings conflict with Ottoman Empire, Japan, and Great Britain
• Russification, official anti-Semitism, and Pan-Slavism

Question 20

Legacy of post-1848 period

Answer 20

• New German Empire becomes the economic powerhouse of Europe
• French Republic survives
• Parliamentary Democracy and its limits in pre-1914 Europe
• multi-ethnic empires (Habsburg, Ottoman, Russian) and the nationalities question create ongoing tensions
• liberal-democratic ideals of 1848 abandoned wholesale for nationalism and Realpolitik

Question 21

Triple Alliance vs. Dual Alliance vs. Entente Cordiale

Answer 21

Triple Alliance: Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy (1882)

Dual Alliance: France and Russia (1894)

Entente Cordiale: Great Britain and France (1904)

Question 22

The Balkans / Ottoman Empire –> Nation States

Answer 22

• Congress of Berlin in 1878 leads to the independence of Serbia and Romania and the autonomy of Bulgaria; Austria-Hungary gets administration of Bosnia-Herzegovina
• Austria-Hungary annexes Bosnia-Herzegovina in 1908
• 1912-1913: Two Balkan Wars
  1. Greece + Serbia + Bulgaria against Ottoman Empire
  2. Bulgaria against Serbia, Greece, and Romania
• ends Ottoman Empire, independent Albania

Question 23

Russo-Japanese War

Answer 23

• 1904 war with Japan over interest in Far East, ended in shocking degear
• Japan emerged as new imperial power with control over Korea and Manchuria
• in Russia: strikes, mutinies, outrage over military defeat, Bloody Sunday, massacre by the army led to 1905 revolution
• broad coalition of workers in St. Petersburg and Moscow, Soviets (worker’s councils), liberals, and students
• Emperor’s October Manifesto allowed elected assembly (Duma) and political parties
• elected Duma had a consultative role, but the autocratic government continued
• Social Democrats were exiled to Siberia or West

Question 24

1917 Revolution

Answer 24

February 1917: Bourgeois revolution

• Provisional government of liberal socialists and liberals continues war
• “Dual power” with Petrograd Soviet, informal assembly of workers, soldiers, and intellectuals

October 1917: Bolshevik Takeover
- demand power for Soviets and peace

Lenin

• democratic centralism
• communism in the least advanced country
• bourgeois revolution into a proletarian once

Question 25

Russian Civil War (1917-1922)

Answer 25

• Constituent Assembly dissolved on its first day in 1918
• Brest-Litovsk treaty, March 1918 –> loss of all Western territories
• White Army and local nationalist governments come close to defeating Bolshevik government
• War Communism (nationalization and confiscation of all resources)
• Cheka –> political police with unlimited powers against “enemies of the revolution”
• Allied troops in Far East
• Separate War with Poland until 1921, treaty divides up Ukraine
• 1922: Union of Soviet Socialist Republics

Question 26

New Economic Policy (1921-1928)

Answer 26

• limited private enterprise, establishes pattern of economic but not political liberalization
• turn back program of extreme nationalism
• allow free trade (not all controlled by government like in War Communism)

Question 27

“Revolution from above”

Answer 27

• 5 year plans (forced industrialization, collectivization of agriculture)
• central planning
• Terror against kulaks (well off farmers who refused to hand over grain)
• political and social “enemies”

Question 28

What made the Fascist and Nazi Takeovers possible? (8 points)

Answer 28

• Transformation of political life after the war (violence, rise of paramilitary organizations)
• party of devoted supporters (highly organized, centralized, easily mobilized)
• extreme nationalism, , fuelled by defeat and dissatisfaction with post-war settlements
• disenchantment in liberal political institutions, especially among middle middle class, and demand for strong leaders
• economic crises: hyperinflation to Great Depression
• political polarization and divisions within the left
• masterful use of propaganda and intimidation of political enemies
• combination of use and abuse of parliamentary procedure and extra-parliamentary intimidation (black shirts and storm troopers, SA)

Question 29

What made Fascist, Nazi, and Stalinist regimes and leaders so popular?

Answer 29

• offered ready answers to social and political problems and frustrations
• reached into every segment of society, controlling every aspect of public and even private life (codified laws against gay men, Hitler Youth)
• introduced pro-natalist and racial measures as solutions, idea of creating perfect children

Question 30

Theory: Fascism, Nazism, and Communism ARE Totalitarian governments

Answer 30

• extremist ideologies, political terror, lack of political freedoms, mass politics, cult of leader, modernizing function, emphasis on mass politics
• totalitarian art
• striking parallels in cult of leader, propaganda, representative architecture and art (elaborate staging, transformation of cities)

Question 31

Theory: Fascism, Nazism, and Communism ARE NOT Totalitarian government

Answer 31

• differences in ideologies: radicial policies more important in Nazism, modernization is more important in Fascism