HIST 205 IDs Flashcards
Citizenship
- When?
-Origins in Ancient Greece during the 8th century B.C - What is it?
-Citizenship refers to the relationship between individual and state to which the individual owes allegiance and is in turn entitled to protection.
-Citizenship emerged with and was grounded in the rise of Greek poleis, or city-states (notably Athens and Sparta). Key principles include equality under the law, civic participation in government, and notions that no one citizen should have too much power for too long. Citizenship bound members of Greek society together through their allegiance to the polis, which in turn had the power to enforce laws and make decisions impacting the collective.
-In ancient Roman society, citizenship was extended from the small scale polis to the entire empire. Romans also conceptualized multiple types of citizenship.
-Citizenship was also often extended to conquered peoples and captives and did not necessarily involve an obligation to political participation.
-The Roman Republic allowed free men, women, and children to have citizenship, but the Athenians only gave citizenship to free, native-born adult males.
-Significance
-The desire to respect the rights of citizens is what led Athens to develop the world’s first democracy, as a way for people to have a say in their own government.
-Citizenship was a political tool; a crucial factor influencing Rome’s rise and eventual decline. Through their extension of citizenship to conquered peoples, Rome increased their legitimacy and helped secure the economic strength of their empire.
-The Antonine Constitution (212 AD) granted citizenship to all free inhabitants of the Roman empire. Rome’s continual expansion of citizenship rights was both a cause and natural effect of the decentralization of the empire.
-Citizenship’s boundaries often played a significant role in shaping the culture of a society. For example, Pericles’ law regarding citizenship in Athens required that Athenians could only be born to two Athenian parents, influencing Athenian paranoia surrounding adultery and even contributing to Athenian women’s segregation and seclusion within the home. On the other hand, Spartan citizenship, earned by men who completed rigorous military training (agoge) over 20 years, parallels cultural ideas emphasising physical development, state loyalty, and military proficiency above all else.
-The laws you were accountable to originally correlated to your citizenship. citizenship was a pathway to freedom, and women in Ptolemaic Egypt used different citizenship to gain more freedom.
Hellenization in the Seleucid and Ptolemaic kingdoms
-When: 323-30 BC
-The Wars of the Successors (323-281 BC) broke out following the death of Alexander the Great as his companions fought for leadership. This leads to the eventual division of the empire into the Antigonid, Seleucid, and Ptolemaic kingdoms (Hellenistic kingdoms)
-Hellenization: the process of cultural fusion between Greek and non-Greek cultures
-In the Seleucid and Ptolemaic kingdoms, this included religious syncretism (equation, reconciliation, or union of different religious figures or practices: Adonis = Osiris), the learning of Greek by locals and vice versa, and adoption of Greek practices and buildings (gymnasiums)
-Significance:
-Demonstrated pattern of syncretism and adoption of cultural practices and stories that would continue to be seen throughout the Mediterranean world. Some Greek gods were adopted into the local tradition or equated with local gods. This is significant because was one of the continuities in ancient history and because the cultural and religious practices and beliefs of many cultures at this time were drawn from others
-Spread of Greek language as lingua franca in Mediterranean world
-Contributed to hostilities between Greeks and non-Greeks (ex. non-Greek worker complaining about not being paid because he was not “hellenized”)
-Also between “Hellenized” and non-“Hellenized” populations. These tensions were especially significant among the Judeans due to conflicts between polytheism and monotheism, as the Hellenistic Seleucid rulers attempted to force Judeans to commit Greek sacrifices. This was a principle reason for conflicts such as the Maccabean Revolt (167 BC), which broke out due to restrictions on freedom of religion and increasing Hellenistic influence on Jewish culture
Princeps
-When: Debated, but seemed to be from Augustus to Diocletian (27 B.C. - 305 A.D.)
What
Means “first citizen”
Preexisting term but redefined by Augustus who was the first official “princeps”
Had the power of an emperor
Autocratic rule
Princeps claimed they were restoring the republic
Had issues with picking a successor, given picking a successor (especially one within the imperial family) was representative of an empire
Significance
Political theater and “fiction of the republic”: Wanted to be seen as continuing the Republic instead of an empire so emperors called themselves princeps even though they had the power of an emperor. Facade of republic
Sort of marks the end of the Roman Republic. When Augustus became princeps the senate was stripped of most of its power and the people were stripped of most of their power. Power now rested with the princeps and his army. This trend continues after Augustus.
Marked the beginning of the imperial period
Representative of Roman obsession with traditionalism
Straddling the line between consul and emperor
Roman freedpeople
-When: all of Roman society, but number of freedpeople increases and freedpeople gain prominence and power in Imperial period
-Freedpeople could be quite wealthy and well-educated
-After being freed from slavery, freedpeople would often continue working for their former masters
Expected to remain loyal to their master
Given Roman citizenship
Often given and retain names of their masters
-Freedpeople often worked in profession relating to their skill set while their were enslaved (gladiators, charioteers, actors, bookkeepers, etc)
-During imperial period, freedpeople increased in numbers due to decline in slave trade and extent of slavery
Emperors distrusted senators and needed a more effective bureaucracy
Consequently freedpeople are increasingly appointed into positions of governance or power where their literacy and bookkeeping were required (secretary, treasury, even leading provinces and armies, etc)
-Freedpeople were able to hold positions of power in smaller towns (ex. priests) and children of freedpeople elected into office
-Many surviving funerary epitaphs
Demographic reasons (lots of freedpeople?)
Higher wealth level for most freed people?
Desire to display freed status?
-Significance:
-Social mobility of freedpeople
-Important role that freedpeople played in Roman culture and economy: freedpeople enjoyed considerable social mobility and could become quite wealthy. Consequently they played an important role in the Roman economy and contributed to Roman culture and religion
-Important part of imperial bureaucracy: helped increase power of emperors. Emperors were distrustful of senators and required bureaucracy, so used freedpeople who were extremely loyal to them to fill these roles. Increase of freedpeople in bureaucracy under reign of Diocletian. This enabled them to consolidate their authority and decrease the power of senators as the roles that senators used to play was being filled by freedpeople loyal to the emperors
Ruler cults
-When: Late 300s BC (306? -Started with the Antigonids) - 380 AD (Christianity made the official Roman religion by Theodosius I)
worshipping of rulers as gods
gave rulers legitimacy
-Alexander was influential for the concept of ruler cults
divine figure
used as an ancestor for legitimacy of future rulers
began with Antigonids
eg Hellenic queens worshipped as goddesses
eg Arsinoe II (ruled 278-268 BC)
statues, temples during her lifetime
not a ruler cult if posthumous
rulers on coins during their lifetime
-Caesar and Augustus as important examples
their names later used for legitimacy as titles and ‘ancestors’
-Euergetism: reciprocal relationship between rulers and citizens
freedom, protection, money etc in exchange for ruler cults, statues, praise
ended around switch to -Christianity/monotheism
significance =
blurry line between politics and religion
like in rome, where senators are also priests
demonstrates ancient polytheistic religion as a set of actions rather than being based on belief
probably don’t actually believe rulers are gods; just worshiping them as gods (orthopraxy not orthodoxy)
-Legitimacy (rulers seeking legitimacy)
Spartan women
- When: 5th century….?
- badasses
- sassy and outspoken
-Prioritized strength and athleticism: gym bros → strong women produce strong children
-Didn’t do housework - too busy training (helots did the housework) - Had lots of authority over their children, (that one mom who killed her son for being a loser): “A woman, when she saw her son approaching, asked how their country was doing. When he said, “all the men are dead,” she picked up a tile, threw it at him, and killed him, saying: ‘then did they send you to bring us the bad news?’” – Unnamed Woman, 5 (Plutarch, Sayings of the Spartan Women)
-Spartan women were able to have relations out of marriage (consented by their husband) to produce more bulky, feral offspring - Influence in political affairs: Gorgo’s advice to her father
-Abandonment: women were more likely to abandon their children if they were feeble or women.
Significance:
-Demonstrates an interesting comparison to the modest and (slightly more) oppressive gender roles in Athens. Shows how not all poleis had the same priorities or morals when it came to the strength of their people. Athens prioritized literature, law and politics, their focus was not on the physical strength of their men, but the strength of their minds. Therefore, a woman’s place at her home, producing boys. Sparta focus was on their armies, strong genes were needed from both men and women, women thus gained respect from their gains. (Adultery vs no adultery, show off body vs modesty, gym bro vs housewife)
Syncretization
-When?
-5th century B.C. through the fall of the Roman Empire. Herodotus practices it in his histories.
-What is it?
-The blending of two different cultures or religions.
-Herodotus did this in his histories, when he called the Persian god Ahura Mazda by the name of Zeus.
-He also did the same thing in Egypt when he equated Khonsu with Heracles.
-This practice of equating foreign gods with Greek ones was called Interpretatio Graeca
-Syncretism also could be the blending of gods, for example Sarapis, which was a god invented by Ptolemy as a fusion of Greek and Egyptian beliefs.
-Alexander the Great also practiced cultural syncretization:
He wore pants: very non-hellenistic
-Syncretization between Christians and Pagans:
Saints worship: a new version of polytheism?
Polytheistic holiday of Saturnalia → Christmas
-Significance:
-It enabled the expansion of several different cultures and religions, all throughout the mediterranean world.
-Encouraged stability in many places, as the religion or culture was seen as similar it was more comfortable for people to coexist with it.
-Enabled Alexander the Great to gain more stability within his empire, as many people in Persia simply saw him as “one of their own”.
-Syncretism was used to hellenize much of the Mediterranean world, spreading Greek ideas abroad.
“They make a desert and they call it peace”
-When: When the Agricola was written in 98 AD
What
-Part of the Agricola, a speech written by Tacitus who said it was performed by Calgacus (Caledonian leader)
-Describes how Romans annexed provinces, plundered them and stripped them of resources and culture, and then claimed the lack of resistance was peace
-This is all in Britannia
-Significance
-Tacitus’s personal critique of the Roman Empire
-Gives some sort of insight into the perspective of the people living in the provinces under Roman rule (specifically Britannia). -However it was written by Tacitus and not taken directly from the people
Gives insight also into how the Romans ruled in their provinces, specifically Agricola in Britannia
Tribunes of the plebs
-When: created early 5th century BC (ask prof kleiman re precise date as it is not in slides/notes)
-The Struggle of the Order occurred during the 5th and 4th centuries as the divide between the patrician and plebeian class in Roman society caused tensions
-Rich plebeians wanted political power
-Abuse of power by patricians
-Debt and land crisis for poor plebeians
-In response, Tribunate of Plebs was created
10 Tribunes elected each year to protect plebeians
Tribunes hold veto power over decisions of senate
-Tribunes are sacrosanct (have religious protection so no one can attack/assassinate them)
-Significance
-First political office that could be held by plebeians in Roman society meant transition to a (hypothetically) more equal and democratic society
-Created greater checks and balances on power of senate and consuls as they could intervene on behalf of plebeians. The right of veto power was the most significant as it meant they could theoretically prevent the consuls and senate from taking actions against the interests of the plebeians
-Changed demographic of Roman aristocracy/elite as rich plebeians could now gain political power. This would especially increase in 367 BC when plebeians were allowed to become consuls and senators
-Power of the tribunate and plebs used most significantly by the Gracchi brothers (especially Tiberius, who had plebeians depose tribune who vetoes legislation he was trying to pass)
Augustus’ laws on adultery and marriage
-When: 27 BC-14 AD (especially 18-17 BC and 9 BC)
-Augustus’ laws on adultery and marriage were part of Augustus’ moral and religious revival in the aftermath of the civil wars
-He claimed that the civil wars were caused by a Roman failure to appease the gods
-Lex Julia de adulteriis coercendis (17 BC): criminalized adultery (especially wives cheating on husbands) for the first time and made prosecution of adulterers a legal necessity
-Lex Julia de maritandis ordinibus (18-17 BC) and lex Papia Poppaea (9 BC): Incentives for men and women of certain ages to marry and penalty for those that did not marry. Additionally, incentives for married couples to have more children (“Right of Three Children” gave women right to be without a legal guardian and inherit and own property)
-Significance
-Significant because these laws were part of Augustus’ attempt to appeal to traditionalism to suggest a return to normalcy and promote greater stability. The civil wars had increasingly brought women into the public sphere, so targeting this would suggest a revival of traditional Roman values
-Gives insight into Roman gender norms. The unpopularity of the laws, the increase of independence women experienced during the war, and evidence from sources such as the Laudatio Turiae may suggest that Augustus’ moral reforms did not reflect actual society
-Laws were deeply unpopular and created considerable resistance in Roman society. Some people tried to exempt themselves from the laws or gain the benefits without committing to marriage. Augustus’ introduction of these laws demonstrates his desire to restore the stability of the state (potentially to increase his own power)
-Demonstrates the importance of family and monogamy in traditional Roman values as Augustus chose to appeal to these to restore stability
-Necessary to increase the population of Rome after it had diminished during civil war
The Battle of Leuctra
- When: 371 BC
-What was it?
-Massive loss for Sparta
victory for Thebes (who is allied with Athens)
-1000 Spartan warriors dead
-Thebes frees the helots
collapse of Spartan power (helots contributed so much to Spartan society)
end of Spartan hegemony in Greece
-Theban hegemony (but chaos continues)
happened because of
-Spartan moral decline?
Indicative of how difficult it was for any one polis to lead the Greek world for long
Catiline’s Conspiracy
- When: 63 B.C
-Written by Sallust in c.43-40 B.C about Cataline, Cataline’s conspiracy speaks of a dude who just wants to be consul but keeps failing, so after three straight rejections he starts plotting an attempted coup d’etat to overthrow the senate. He attempts some assassinations of senators and aristocrats, does some arson, and hosts secret meetings. Marcus Tullius Cicero becomes consul in 63 B.C and starts sniffing around this potential conspiracy: in november of 63 he reveals the conspiracy and Cataline flees from Rome. Cicero follows up by capturing 9 more conspirators (thanks to the help of one of their wives (named Fulvia)) and executes them without trial (thanks to Cato). In early January 62 B.C Cataline, rushes into battle despites his obvious disadvantage and dies a (kinda) glorious death. - Significance
-Demonstrates citizen’s discontentment of the government (the hardships and violence) during the civil war period. Lots of mistrust, suspicion and backstabbing (literally..cough cough: Caesar)
-Gives perspective into the competitiveness of consulship. Cicero was most likely keen to expose Cataline for his crimes because Cataline was his competition in consulship. The more extreme Cicero could make the conspiracy seem, the more he could ruin Cataline’s reputation whilst boosting his own.
Cleisthenes’ reforms
-When: 508 BC
-What: Athenians composed into 10 tribes, each with 3 groups
-Each tribe has a group of people from the coast, the city, and the hills/inland regions
-139 demes, 13 in each tribe for local democracy
-The Boule (council) of 500; 50 elected annually from each tribe: all Athenian citizens can become councilors
-The Ekklesia (assembly), where all citizens can gather to vote on laws or elections
-Demokratia - kratos of the demos (power of the people)
-Significance
-Known as the beginning of Athenian democracy
Placed a lot of emphasis on being a citizen instead of being part of a certain clan, which was very revolutionary at the time
System instead of people
Constantine’s conversion
-When? 312 AD
-What was it?
-This was Emperor Constantine’s conversion to Christianity
-He was the first Christian Roman Emperor.
-Constantine tried to become a bishop.
-Significance
-While Christianity is still the minority religion, it becomes much more socially acceptable to be Christian.
-Constantine legitimised and later funded much of the Christian church. All of Constantine’s successors were Christian.
-Marks a major shift for the western world: away from polytheism, and towards monotheism.
-Led to conflicts over what the proper Christian belief was, and what was “orthodox”. It used to only matter how you practiced your beliefs, but now what you believe matters.
The fall of the Western Roman Empire
-When: 476 A.D.
-Last Roman Emperor (Romulus Augustus) deposed and Odovacer (maybe Gothic) declared king.
-Actually a gradual decline in the actual power of the Roman emperor in the 450s-70s AD. Some provinces were conquered by tribes or just abandoned.
-Alternate last emperor Julius Nepos dies 480 AD.
-Eastern Roman Empire still intact (Byzantine Empire).
-Significance:
-The Roman way of life survived after this and Roman people remained the majority with Germanic rulers as the minority.
-Debate over whether this was actually significant for ordinary Romans as it’s not certain how much changed for them.
-Roman culture prevailed even in former provinces -ex Theodoric (Ostrogothic king) maintained a lot of latin literature, law and culture.
-Question of was this really the end of the Mediterranean World and the Roman Empire, simply because there wasn’t really one central Roman power?
-Still people calling themselves Roman Emperors.
