HIST 205 IDs Flashcards
Citizenship
- When?
-Origins in Ancient Greece during the 8th century B.C - What is it?
-Citizenship refers to the relationship between individual and state to which the individual owes allegiance and is in turn entitled to protection.
-Citizenship emerged with and was grounded in the rise of Greek poleis, or city-states (notably Athens and Sparta). Key principles include equality under the law, civic participation in government, and notions that no one citizen should have too much power for too long. Citizenship bound members of Greek society together through their allegiance to the polis, which in turn had the power to enforce laws and make decisions impacting the collective.
-In ancient Roman society, citizenship was extended from the small scale polis to the entire empire. Romans also conceptualized multiple types of citizenship.
-Citizenship was also often extended to conquered peoples and captives and did not necessarily involve an obligation to political participation.
-The Roman Republic allowed free men, women, and children to have citizenship, but the Athenians only gave citizenship to free, native-born adult males.
-Significance
-The desire to respect the rights of citizens is what led Athens to develop the world’s first democracy, as a way for people to have a say in their own government.
-Citizenship was a political tool; a crucial factor influencing Rome’s rise and eventual decline. Through their extension of citizenship to conquered peoples, Rome increased their legitimacy and helped secure the economic strength of their empire.
-The Antonine Constitution (212 AD) granted citizenship to all free inhabitants of the Roman empire. Rome’s continual expansion of citizenship rights was both a cause and natural effect of the decentralization of the empire.
-Citizenship’s boundaries often played a significant role in shaping the culture of a society. For example, Pericles’ law regarding citizenship in Athens required that Athenians could only be born to two Athenian parents, influencing Athenian paranoia surrounding adultery and even contributing to Athenian women’s segregation and seclusion within the home. On the other hand, Spartan citizenship, earned by men who completed rigorous military training (agoge) over 20 years, parallels cultural ideas emphasising physical development, state loyalty, and military proficiency above all else.
-The laws you were accountable to originally correlated to your citizenship. citizenship was a pathway to freedom, and women in Ptolemaic Egypt used different citizenship to gain more freedom.
Hellenization in the Seleucid and Ptolemaic kingdoms
-When: 323-30 BC
-The Wars of the Successors (323-281 BC) broke out following the death of Alexander the Great as his companions fought for leadership. This leads to the eventual division of the empire into the Antigonid, Seleucid, and Ptolemaic kingdoms (Hellenistic kingdoms)
-Hellenization: the process of cultural fusion between Greek and non-Greek cultures
-In the Seleucid and Ptolemaic kingdoms, this included religious syncretism (equation, reconciliation, or union of different religious figures or practices: Adonis = Osiris), the learning of Greek by locals and vice versa, and adoption of Greek practices and buildings (gymnasiums)
-Significance:
-Demonstrated pattern of syncretism and adoption of cultural practices and stories that would continue to be seen throughout the Mediterranean world. Some Greek gods were adopted into the local tradition or equated with local gods. This is significant because was one of the continuities in ancient history and because the cultural and religious practices and beliefs of many cultures at this time were drawn from others
-Spread of Greek language as lingua franca in Mediterranean world
-Contributed to hostilities between Greeks and non-Greeks (ex. non-Greek worker complaining about not being paid because he was not “hellenized”)
-Also between “Hellenized” and non-“Hellenized” populations. These tensions were especially significant among the Judeans due to conflicts between polytheism and monotheism, as the Hellenistic Seleucid rulers attempted to force Judeans to commit Greek sacrifices. This was a principle reason for conflicts such as the Maccabean Revolt (167 BC), which broke out due to restrictions on freedom of religion and increasing Hellenistic influence on Jewish culture
Princeps
-When: Debated, but seemed to be from Augustus to Diocletian (27 B.C. - 305 A.D.)
What
Means “first citizen”
Preexisting term but redefined by Augustus who was the first official “princeps”
Had the power of an emperor
Autocratic rule
Princeps claimed they were restoring the republic
Had issues with picking a successor, given picking a successor (especially one within the imperial family) was representative of an empire
Significance
Political theater and “fiction of the republic”: Wanted to be seen as continuing the Republic instead of an empire so emperors called themselves princeps even though they had the power of an emperor. Facade of republic
Sort of marks the end of the Roman Republic. When Augustus became princeps the senate was stripped of most of its power and the people were stripped of most of their power. Power now rested with the princeps and his army. This trend continues after Augustus.
Marked the beginning of the imperial period
Representative of Roman obsession with traditionalism
Straddling the line between consul and emperor
Roman freedpeople
-When: all of Roman society, but number of freedpeople increases and freedpeople gain prominence and power in Imperial period
-Freedpeople could be quite wealthy and well-educated
-After being freed from slavery, freedpeople would often continue working for their former masters
Expected to remain loyal to their master
Given Roman citizenship
Often given and retain names of their masters
-Freedpeople often worked in profession relating to their skill set while their were enslaved (gladiators, charioteers, actors, bookkeepers, etc)
-During imperial period, freedpeople increased in numbers due to decline in slave trade and extent of slavery
Emperors distrusted senators and needed a more effective bureaucracy
Consequently freedpeople are increasingly appointed into positions of governance or power where their literacy and bookkeeping were required (secretary, treasury, even leading provinces and armies, etc)
-Freedpeople were able to hold positions of power in smaller towns (ex. priests) and children of freedpeople elected into office
-Many surviving funerary epitaphs
Demographic reasons (lots of freedpeople?)
Higher wealth level for most freed people?
Desire to display freed status?
-Significance:
-Social mobility of freedpeople
-Important role that freedpeople played in Roman culture and economy: freedpeople enjoyed considerable social mobility and could become quite wealthy. Consequently they played an important role in the Roman economy and contributed to Roman culture and religion
-Important part of imperial bureaucracy: helped increase power of emperors. Emperors were distrustful of senators and required bureaucracy, so used freedpeople who were extremely loyal to them to fill these roles. Increase of freedpeople in bureaucracy under reign of Diocletian. This enabled them to consolidate their authority and decrease the power of senators as the roles that senators used to play was being filled by freedpeople loyal to the emperors
Ruler cults
-When: Late 300s BC (306? -Started with the Antigonids) - 380 AD (Christianity made the official Roman religion by Theodosius I)
worshipping of rulers as gods
gave rulers legitimacy
-Alexander was influential for the concept of ruler cults
divine figure
used as an ancestor for legitimacy of future rulers
began with Antigonids
eg Hellenic queens worshipped as goddesses
eg Arsinoe II (ruled 278-268 BC)
statues, temples during her lifetime
not a ruler cult if posthumous
rulers on coins during their lifetime
-Caesar and Augustus as important examples
their names later used for legitimacy as titles and ‘ancestors’
-Euergetism: reciprocal relationship between rulers and citizens
freedom, protection, money etc in exchange for ruler cults, statues, praise
ended around switch to -Christianity/monotheism
significance =
blurry line between politics and religion
like in rome, where senators are also priests
demonstrates ancient polytheistic religion as a set of actions rather than being based on belief
probably don’t actually believe rulers are gods; just worshiping them as gods (orthopraxy not orthodoxy)
-Legitimacy (rulers seeking legitimacy)
Helots
Helots were a subjugated population in ancient Sparta, and permanent public slaves
-When?
Their origins trace back to the conquest of Laconia and Messenia during the late 7th century B.C.
-Significance
Unlike typical slaves, they were not privately owned but belonged to the Spartan state and were responsible for agricultural labor, supporting the Spartan economy and allowing Spartan citizens to focus on military training and governance.
Their presence allowed Sparta to develop and maintain a unique military-focused society, which was essential for its dominance within Greece during the Classical period. However, the Helots also constituted a constant threat to Spartan security due to their large population and subjugation, which led to frequent revolts. This dynamic tension significantly influenced Spartan policies and its militaristic, repressive, and conservative social structure.
Herodotus on Egyptian Religion
-When?
Greek historian writing in the 5th century B.C.
-What?
His work, The Histories, provides one of the earliest comprehensive accounts of Egyptian religion.
Described various aspects of Egyptian religion, including their gods, rituals, and temples. He noted the Egyptians’ heavy emphasis on the afterlife and their intricate funeral practices, such as mummification. He also mentioned the pantheon of Egyptian deities, such as Osiris, Isis, and Horus, and recorded observations on festivals and local customs.
-Significance
Although Herodotus’s accounts are not always accurate, often colored by his interpretations or misunderstandings, they provide valuable insights into how Greek culture viewed the Egyptians and contribute to our historical understanding of Egypt’s religious landscape during that period. His work remains a foundational reference for historians studying ancient Egypt.
The Ptolemaic Dynasty
-When
Reigning for 275 years, the Ptolemaic was the longest and last dynasty of ancient Egypt from 305 BC until its incorporation into the Roman Republic in 30 BC.
It was established by Soter, a general under Alexander the Great
-Significance
The Ptolemaic period was marked by the intense interactions and blending of the Greek and Egyptian cultures. Under the Ptolemies, Hellenistic religion was largely shaped by religious syncretism and imperial cult.
Ptolemaic Egypt was a melting pot of Greek and Egyptian cultures
The dynasty’s end marked the transition of Egypt into a Roman province.
The Battle of Cannae
When?
Took place on August 2, 216 BCE, during the Second Punic War between the Roman Republic and the Carthaginian Empire, led by General Hannibal Barca.
-Significance
The Battle of Cannae is regarded as one of the greatest tactical feats in military history.
Tactical Mastery: Hannibal’s forces achieved remarkable success, encircling and decisively defeating a much larger Roman army.
Turning Point: The defeat severely weakened Roman military dominance in Italy, causing major shifts in alliances and strategies during the war. It instilled fear in Rome.
Long-Term Impact: Although Hannibal won the battle, he did not capitalize on his victory to capture Rome, which eventually led to his own defeat in the war.
The outbreak of the Second Macedonian War
-When?
200-197 B.C.
-What
was a conflict between the Roman Republic and the Kingdom of Macedon.
It emerged in the context of growing tensions in the Hellenistic world.
War began when Rome intervened in response to King Philip V of Macedon’s expansionist ambitions, which threatened Greek city-states that were supporters of Rome.
-Significance
Lies in its role in establishing Roman dominance in the eastern Mediterranean. Following their victory, the Romans effectively ended Macedon as a major power.
This war marked a critical step in Rome’s transition from a regional power to an empire, laying the groundwork for further Roman conquests in Greece and beyond. Ultimately, it set the stage for Rome’s growing influence over the Hellenistic kingdoms.
The Battle of Leuctra
- When: 371 BC
-What was it?
-Massive loss for Sparta
victory for Thebes (who is allied with Athens)
-1000 Spartan warriors dead
-Thebes frees the helots
collapse of Spartan power (helots contributed so much to Spartan society)
end of Spartan hegemony in Greece
-Theban hegemony (but chaos continues)
happened because of
-Spartan moral decline?
Indicative of how difficult it was for any one polis to lead the Greek world for long
Catiline’s Conspiracy
- When: 63 B.C
-Written by Sallust in c.43-40 B.C about Cataline, Cataline’s conspiracy speaks of a dude who just wants to be consul but keeps failing, so after three straight rejections he starts plotting an attempted coup d’etat to overthrow the senate. He attempts some assassinations of senators and aristocrats, does some arson, and hosts secret meetings. Marcus Tullius Cicero becomes consul in 63 B.C and starts sniffing around this potential conspiracy: in november of 63 he reveals the conspiracy and Cataline flees from Rome. Cicero follows up by capturing 9 more conspirators (thanks to the help of one of their wives (named Fulvia)) and executes them without trial (thanks to Cato). In early January 62 B.C Cataline, rushes into battle despites his obvious disadvantage and dies a (kinda) glorious death. - Significance
-Demonstrates citizen’s discontentment of the government (the hardships and violence) during the civil war period. Lots of mistrust, suspicion and backstabbing (literally..cough cough: Caesar)
-Gives perspective into the competitiveness of consulship. Cicero was most likely keen to expose Cataline for his crimes because Cataline was his competition in consulship. The more extreme Cicero could make the conspiracy seem, the more he could ruin Cataline’s reputation whilst boosting his own.
“Catiline’s Conspiracy” refers to a series of events in ancient Rome involving Catiline, who was a senator accused of plotting to overthrow the Roman Republic in 63 BCE. The most famous account of this conspiracy is provided by the Roman orator and statesman Cicero, who delivered a series of speeches, known as the “Catilinarian Orations,” to expose Catiline’s plans and rally support against him.
The conspiracy involved an alleged conspiracy to assassinate several senators and to seize power in Rome. Cicero, who was serving as consul at the time, successfully thwarted the plot and ultimately led to the execution of several conspirators without trial. The events surrounding Catiline’s conspiracy are significant in discussions of Roman politics, law, and rhetoric.
Cleisthenes’ reforms
-When: 508 BC
-What: Athenians composed into 10 tribes, each with 3 groups
-Each tribe has a group of people from the coast, the city, and the hills/inland regions
-139 demes, 13 in each tribe for local democracy
-The Boule (council) of 500; 50 elected annually from each tribe: all Athenian citizens can become councilors
-The Ekklesia (assembly), where all citizens can gather to vote on laws or elections
-Demokratia - kratos of the demos (power of the people)
-Significance
-Known as the beginning of Athenian democracy
Placed a lot of emphasis on being a citizen instead of being part of a certain clan, which was very revolutionary at the time
System instead of people
Constantine’s conversion
-When? 312 AD
-What was it?
-This was Emperor Constantine’s conversion to Christianity
-He was the first Christian Roman Emperor.
-Constantine tried to become a bishop.
-Significance
-While Christianity is still the minority religion, it becomes much more socially acceptable to be Christian.
-Constantine legitimised and later funded much of the Christian church. All of Constantine’s successors were Christian.
-Marks a major shift for the western world: away from polytheism, and towards monotheism.
-Led to conflicts over what the proper Christian belief was, and what was “orthodox”. It used to only matter how you practiced your beliefs, but now what you believe matters.
The fall of the Western Roman Empire
-When: 476 A.D.
-Last Roman Emperor (Romulus Augustus) deposed and Odovacer (maybe Gothic) declared king.
-Actually a gradual decline in the actual power of the Roman emperor in the 450s-70s AD. Some provinces were conquered by tribes or just abandoned.
-Alternate last emperor Julius Nepos dies 480 AD.
-Eastern Roman Empire still intact (Byzantine Empire).
-Significance:
-The Roman way of life survived after this and Roman people remained the majority with Germanic rulers as the minority.
-Debate over whether this was actually significant for ordinary Romans as it’s not certain how much changed for them.
-Roman culture prevailed even in former provinces -ex Theodoric (Ostrogothic king) maintained a lot of latin literature, law and culture.
-Question of was this really the end of the Mediterranean World and the Roman Empire, simply because there wasn’t really one central Roman power?
-Still people calling themselves Roman Emperors.
The foundation of Cyrene
-When: C. 631 B.C.
-What was it?
-A Greek colony city, created in Libya
-There’s two competing stories on how it was first founded:
The Theraean story: Grinnus, an ex-Spartan king who was now living on the island of Thera, went to sacrifice 100 people for the Oracle at Delphi, for the good of his community.
-The oracle told him that he needed to found a city in Libya instead, which Grinnus brushed off. After facing a drought, he consulted the oracle again, and was yet again told him to found a city in Libya, so he went on and founded Cyrene.
-The Cyrenean story: Battus, the founder of Cyrene, says he went to Delphi to cure his stutter, and was told by the oracle to found a colony in Libya to fix it. He brushed this off, then was having issues at home, then founded a colony on Platea, an island just north of Libya. This wasn’t going too great, so he went and yet again consulted the oracle who told him that the city had to be on the mainland, so he went and finally founded a city on the mainland.
-Regardless of whoever initially founded the city, the city’s original location wasn’t ideal, so some Libyans led the Cyrenians to a new location at the spring called “Apollo’s fountain”. Finally, it was here where Cyrene was officially founded.
-Cyrene’s population began small, but grew when an oracle came to Cyrene. Population boomed when an offer was put out: Free land for Greeks who go to Cyrene. This land expansion began to encroach on Libyan land, so the Libyans and Egypt joined together against Cyrene. Cyrene won, likely because Egypt hadn’t encountered hoplites before.
-Significance
-This is an early example of the spread of hellenization, and the overall spread of Greek culture. The trend of Greek cultural expansion continues throughout the whole class.
-This also shows the beginnings of colonization, something which not only the Greek but later the Roman world did very often. With Greece, in particular Western Anatolia and Sicily come to mind for colonies.
-Shows land constraints: Ancient Greeks were willing to cross the mediterranean for the offer of extra land, showing that Ancient Greece didn’t have much free land to go around. This trend also continues in Rome, with conflicts over land being central to many different class conflicts.
-Shows the influence that the Oracle of Delphi had, as she could make very large political changes.
-Shows the beginning of conflict between Greeks and Non-Greeks: Greek Identity begins to form
The Sicilian Expedition
- When?
415-413 B.C - What was it?
-An Athenian military expedition to Sicily during the Peloponnesian War. Athens vs. Sparta, Syracuse, and Corinth.
Proposed by Alcibiades (the playboy), an Athenian populist.
-Led by Nicias
-The expedition was a devastating defeat for Athenian forces, severely affecting Athens. - Significance
-Sometimes seen as the turning point in the war. Two hundred ships and thousands of soldiers, an appreciable portion of Athens’ total manpower, were lost in a single stroke. Athens recovered, but was heavily shaken.
-Beginning of the end of Athenian dominance
-Themes of hubris: Athens was cocky
The Spartacus Revolt
-When: 73-71 BC
-Slave revolt composed of over 70,000
-Began with the escape of slaves from gladiatorial school of Lentius Batiatus in Capua (central Italy)
-Lead by gladiator Spartacus (potentially from Thrace)
-Revolt initially defeated by Marcus Licinius Crassus in 71 BC and then by Pompey
-Extremely severe and brutal punishments (crucifixions, etc.)
-Significance
-Last major Roman slave revolt. This may be due to a change in the treatment of slaves (laws restricting punishments), change in grouping of slaves (interspersing in grouping of slaves to prevent large concentrations), or change in Roman territory (larger empire made it more difficult for slaves to revolt)
-After gaining weapons, slaves were able to defeat and prolong the conflict against the Roman military. This is significant as the military was one of the primary strengths in the Roman empire, so a challenge to that within Italy itself represented a significant crisis
-One of the legacies of the revolt is the idolization of Spartacus as a hero who fought for freedom in popular culture throughout history
-Slave revolts in general and particularly this one were blamed on the poor treatment of slaves rather than the institution of slavery by blaming one individual (ex. Lentulus Batiatus accused of being very cruel). This is significant because it demonstrates a reluctance or inability to recognize that it was a systemic issue
-Revolt began with slaves at gladiatorial school but spread to many levels of society that held resentment (shepherds, farmers, intellectual slaves, etc.) so it may indicate more widespread societal discontent
The Third Century Crisis
-When?
235 A.D - 284 A.D
- What was it?
-Beginning with the end of the Severan dynasty in 235 A.D and ending with Aurelian’s military victories as well as the rule of Diocletian in 284 A.D
-During the 3rd century, the Roman empire nearly collapsed under the combined weight of frontier invasion, economic failure, civil war, and decentralization.
-During the crisis, Rome saw the successful resurgence of the Persians (now Parthians) as well as invasions from Germans and Goths, resulting in the collapse of the Roman frontier.
-Overwhelmed by simultaneous threats, the empire was forced to bribe their soldiers and pay off invading tribes. Combined with hyperinflation due to the debasement of currency, this resulted in near total economic collapse.
-Christians were blamed for the desperate situation because they denied the gods who were thought to protect Rome, thereby bringing down their wrath.
-Eventually, the emperor Aurelian’s success against border tribes + his economic and coinage reforms reunited the empire and pulled Rome out of crisis.
- Significance
-The crisis resulted in several impactful changes.
Over 50 “barracks emperors” assumed power in the 50 years of crisis.
-Their power was unstable and exclusively based in the military. As a result, Rome (the city) lost its role as the political center of the empire, though it remained ideologically important.
Many long standing, established Roman family houses collapsed due to the economic crisis.
Decentralization: Gaul and Palmyra broke away from Roman rule and established their own miniature versions of the Roman empire not based in Italy.
Christian persecution: The Degree of Decius (249 AD), created to address widespread fear that the gods had abandoned Rome, highlighted the increasingly pervasive clash between polytheistic ritual systems and Christian belief systems.
By the end of the crisis during the rule of Diocletian, the idea of a Roman “republic” or a first citizen no longer existed. The position of the emperor was elevated to divine status.
Alexander the Great
-When: 356-323 B.C.
-Who was he?
-He’s the son of Philip II and his wife Olympias. He ruled Macedonia from 336-323 B.C, after his father’s assassination
-He vastly expanded the Macedonian Empire:
Put down rebellions from the League of Corinth, cementing Macedonian dominance in Greece
-Then, while working with Greek forces, he went on to attack Persia.
-This was done w/ the goals of freeing Ionian Greeks, getting revenge for the Persian war, and and for Philip II’s assassination
Alexander wins a battle in Anatolia against Persians, then goes to Egypt. There, he’s seen as a liberator, as Egypt had been fighting Persia for years.
-Eventually, he defeats Persia and its king, Darius III. A satrap kills Darius III, so Alexander goes on to kill that satrap to establish himself as the one true king of Persia.
-Then, Alexander just keeps conquering:
-He wins battle after battle, eventually making it to India. There, his troops threatened mutiny so Alexander returned back home.
-What were some reasons why he kept expanding?
-Macedonian ideology of conquest (Handed down by his father)
-Gaining glory
-He just wants to conquer all
-He practiced cultural syncretism very often
-This smoothed over the transition to his rule in other places, but in Greece and Macedonia some saw it as a betrayal of his origin.
-On his deathbed, it’s rumored that he said “to the strongest”, plunging his empire into civil war
-Significance:
-His death began “The wars of the Successors”, in which his companions fought over control of his empire
-His death also began the Hellenistic Period.
Alexander spread hellenistic ideas throughout all of his empire, “hellenizing” much of the known world.
-His death led to his empire splitting into three main parts: The Kingdom of Macedonia (led by Antigonids), the Selucid empire in Syria and Persia, and the Ptolemies in Egypt.
-He founded Alexandria
Agrippina the Younger
-When: lived 15-59 AD
-Agrippina the Younger was the sister of Caligula, niece and wife of Claudius, and mother of Nero.
-Very powerful and, especially, after Caligula and her second husband died, very wealthy.
-As the sister of Caligula she was given the rights of a vestal virgin (without actually having to be one).
-Tried to restrain Nero when he became emperor.
-Significance:
-She is significant because she is an example of how women in the Imperial family could hold a lot of their own power. While married to Claudius a colony was named in her honor and her son (Nero) was adopted as the heir to the empire.
-Also showed how powerful women like her (and Livia and Augusta) could be feared as well as adored. She was accused of giving Claudius poison-laced mushrooms to kill him and put Nero on the throne. Male senators often felt threatened by powerful women so they present them as villains scheming to put their sons in power.
-The power she held is also demonstrated in her death, at the hands of Nero. He claimed that she was looking to become a partner in the ruling of the empire and, when unsuccessful, turned against the soldiers and senators and tried to force herself into meetings. Her position of power leads to jealousy/fear from the emperor, which also appeared in Tiberius’s jealousy of Livia (who was seen as mother of the nation).
The Second Persian War
-When?
480-479 B.C.
-What?
was primarily marked by the Persian invasion of Greece under King Xerxes
After Darius I’s defeat in the First Persian War, Xerxes sought to expand Persian dominance and punish the Greeks for their resistance.
The Battle of Plataea (479 BCE): resulting in a conclusive Greek victory.
-Significance
This war marked a pivotal turning point in Greek history. It not only halted Persian expansion but also fostered a sense of unity among the Greek city-states. The victories had lasting impacts on Western civilization, leading to the rise of Athens as a powerful city-state and the eventual establishment of the Delian League, setting the stage for the Golden Age of Greece. The war also contributed to the cultural and political evolution of Europe, influencing concepts of democracy and governance.
Cleopatra VII
-lived 70 - 30 BC
-feuding with her brother over the throne = civil war
-she was very clever, first of the Ptolemies to speak Egyptian
-gets Caesar involved in the civil war
-she becomes sole ruler of Egypt
-She is best known for her political acumen and her role in the Roman political battles between Julius Caesar and Pompey, and later between Octavian and Mark Antony. Her significance lies in her efforts to maintain Egypt’s independence amid the expanding Roman Empire. Her alliances with Julius Caesar and Mark Antony were both political and romantic, and they played a critical role in the power struggles of Roman imperial expansion.
-Significance:
-Cleo = last ruler of Ptolemaic Egypt
her death marks end of Ptolemaic Egypt, last major Hellenistic kingdom, and Hellenistic Period and beginning of Roman Egypt (province of Rome)
Cypselus
-When: ruled 657-625 BC
-Tyrant of Corinth
-Descended from Bacchiad family
-Legend of cute baby: Bacchiadae heard oracle say that Cypselus would overthrow them and tried to have him assassinated, but baby Cypselus was just too cute to kill
-Grew up, learned of prophecy, and seized power
-Brutal leader who drove many Corinthians into exile, deprived them of property, or had them executed or punished
-Managed to stabilize his power and maintain popularity by taking wealth and power away from aristocracy and giving it to the lower classes
-Succeeded by son Periander, who was even more brutal
-Significance
-Legend was a way for Cypselus to sanction his reign as a usurper.
-Significant as it demonstrates pattern of religious justification for leadership
-Tyrants were generally coming from the aristocracy and upper classes, but often relied on lower classes or class conflict for their rule.
-Appealing to the masses by giving them money, food, infrastructure, etc was a good way to maintain popularity
-Tyrants attempted to create hereditary rule but it often failed after a few generations
Aspasia
-When?
470-400 B.C.
-What?
was a prominent figure in ancient Athens, known for her intelligence and influence. She was originally from Miletus and moved to Athens, where she became the partner of the statesman Pericles. Aspasia played a significant role in Athenian society and intellectual life, influencing discussions on philosophy and politics during the Golden Age of Athens.
-Significance
lies in her contributions to the social and political landscape of the time, as well as her representation of women’s roles in a predominantly male-dominated society. Aspasia was also noted for her skills in rhetoric and Pericles was accused of getting the decree passed authorizing the war against Samos at Aspasia’s request. Despite the patriarchal constraints of her time, she emerged as a notable intellectual and a key figure in Athenian cultural history.
Gaius Julius Caesar
-When?
100-44 B.C.
-What?
was a Roman general, statesman, and pivotal figure in the transition from the Roman Republic to the Roman Empire. His context includes a period of social and political turmoil within Rome, marked by class conflicts, power struggles, and a desire for reform.
-Significance
Military Conquests: He led the Gallic Wars (58-50 BC), expanding Rome’s territory significantly and demonstrating his military prowess.
Political Reforms: Caesar implemented various reforms aimed at addressing the needs of the lower classes and centralizing power, which challenged the traditional Senate’s authority.
Dictatorship: In 49 BC, he crossed the Rubicon River and marched on Rome, igniting a civil war. He eventually declared himself dictator for life in 44 BC, which led to tensions among the Senate.
Legacy: His death marked the end of the Roman Republic, paving the way for the rise of his grandnephew and adopted heir, Octavian (later Augustus), who became the first Roman Emperor.
Gaius Marius
-When?
157-86 B.C.
-What?
was a Roman general and statesman whose career significantly influenced the late Roman Republic. He held the Consulship seven times, notably during a period marked by social and political upheaval.
-Significance
Marius is best known for his military reforms, which transformed the Roman army. He allowed landless citizens to enlist, creating a professional standing army loyal to its generals rather than the Roman state. This shift contributed to the rise of powerful military leaders and the eventual decline of the Republic.
Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus
-When?
163-133 B.C.
-What?
was a Roman politician and reformer notable for his role in addressing social and economic inequalities in the late Roman Republic.
-Significance
He is best known for his efforts to implement land reforms aimed at redistributing public land to the poorer classes, particularly veterans and the urban poor.
his challenge to the established Roman elite and the resulting political tensions that arose.
Set the stage for further social reforms and civil unrest, and he highlighted the growing divide between the rich and the poor, which would continue to affect Roman politics in the years to come.
His legacy also inspired future reformers, including his younger brother, Gaius Gracchus.
Vespasian
-When?
Was a Roman Emperor who ruled from 69-79 A.D.
-Significance
Stabilization of the Empire: Vespasian is credited with restoring stability to the Roman Empire after years of civil war. His rule began the Flavian dynasty, which continued his legacy through his sons, Titus and Domitian.
Economic Reform: He implemented various fiscal reforms that improved the empire’s financial situation, which had suffered under Nero’s extravagance.
Cultural Contributions: Vespasian is known for initiating large construction projects, including the Colosseum, which began its construction during his reign.
Provincial Governance: He emphasized the importance of provincial governance and promoted the integration of the provinces into the imperial structure, enhancing loyalty and stability.
Vespasian’s reign marked a significant turning point in Roman history, transitioning from personal rule to a more structured imperial administration.
The Colosseum
-When: 80 A.D
-Imperator Titus Flavius Caesar Vespasianus Augustus (Vespasianus) (ruled 69-79 A.D) created a building program that led to the construction of multiple great Roman monuments, including the colosseum. Originally called the Flavian Amphitheatre, the colosseum took 10yrs to build and could fit anywhere from 50,000-70,000 people. Romans would watch anything from gladiatorial games (human and animal) to full on naval battles. The participants of these games would range from willing volunteers (who would train to become celebrity fighters) to unwilling slaves.
-Significance
-The popularity of the colosseum and gladiatorial games greatly augmented the industry of supplying slaves and beasts.
-It also demonstrates the Roman’s adoration of violence and death as entertainment, providing insight on the hyper-militaristic ideals of Roman society.
-Part of the Flavian Building Programme which sought to celebrate Roman glory and increase popularity with the Roman people. Demonstrated euergetism (“do ut des”), in which ancient leaders would fund public infrastructure in exchange for political and social support
Pompeii
-When: Conquered by Roman Republic in 3rd century and destroyed by eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD
-Covered by ash in eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD and largely preserved:
-Pompeii was an ancient Roman city located near Naples, Italy, which was famously preserved under ash after the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD. The significance of Pompeii lies in its well-preserved ruins, which provide valuable insights into Roman life, architecture, and urban planning. The artifacts, art, and buildings discovered at the site allow historians and archaeologists to study the social structure, economy, and daily activities of its inhabitants before the eruption. Pompeii is now a World Heritage Site and serves as a key location for understanding ancient Roman civilization.
-Significance:
-Most important insight into typical Roman life surviving to us
-Religion: shows adoption of foreign gods into Roman society
-Society: shows social hierarchy and social divides in housing, dining, sanitation habits
-Does not necessarily represent all of Roman society
The Lefkandi Tomb
- When?
Greece’s Dark Age (1200-750 B.C.E) - What was it?
-An archaeological find in the Lefkandi site (a large and scattered settlement, well positioned for trade). Lefkandi features large buildings and better art than what is typically seen from the Dark Age.
-Uncharacteristic of post-Bronze Age Collapse settlements.
-The site features a temple dedicated to a male warrier and a burial dedicated to a woman ordained in gold. - Significance:
-The burials found at Lefkandi give us insight into life and ideas in the Dark Age. The tomb suggests both respect for female figures as well as the value placed on posthumous glory.
-It also suggests that the Dark Age may not have been as dark for everyone… more lavish funerary sites and more imported goods were found at Lefkandi than in other archeological sites, suggesting the presence of trade.
The Parthenon
- When: constructed between 447 - 438 B.C
-Temple of Athena the maiden built by Greek architects during the height of the Athenian Empire, under the leadership of Pericles.
-Part of a mass building program of Athenian artistic and cultural monuments from Delian league’s trust fund of the Persian war.
-Top: A famous marble statue of Heracles
-Friezes: Mythological scenes: Greek vs Amazons = Athenian “civilization vs Persian “barbarism”
-Bottom: Part of the friezes, showing a procession in the Panathenaea festival, Athens most important festival
-Many versions of each god
The Agricola
-When?
Written by the Roman historian Tacitus around 98 AD
-What?
Is a biography of his father-in-law, Gnaeus Julius Agricola, who served as the governor of Britain from 77 to 84 AD.
The work was composed during the early Roman Empire, a period marked by military expansion and the consolidation of territories. Tacitus wrote it as a response to the political climate of his time, reflecting on Roman imperialism and governance.
-Significance
Is one of the primary sources for understanding Roman Britain and the dynamics of Roman rule. It offers valuable descriptions of the social structure, culture, and customs of both Romans and Britons.
Laudatio Turiae
-When?
Late 1st century BC
-What?
Roman funerary inscription
-Significance
It serves as a eulogy for a woman named Turia, delivered by her husband, who commemorates her virtues, loyalty, and the couple’s shared experiences during a tumultuous period in Roman history.
This inscription is notable for its emotional depth and personal tone, providing insights into the values and social norms of the time, particularly regarding marriage, fidelity, and the role of women in Roman society. It reflects the personal rather than purely public achievements, offering a glimpse into private life and the importance of familial bonds in Roman culture. The Laudatio Turiae remains a key text for understanding Roman attitudes toward gender, love, and memory in the ancient world.
On the Murder of Eratosthenes
speech delivered c. 400-380 B.C
written by Lysias
Euphiletus defends his killing of Eratosthenes
says it is because Eratosthenes was committing adultery with his wife
thus = permissible (and even required) under the law, should not be punishable
his story =
Eratosthenes sees the wife at her mother-in-law’s funeral
Eratosthenes used Euphiletus’ slave to persuade his wife to have an affair with him
old woman revealed the affair to Euphiletus, who confirmed by interrogating the slave girl
waited until Eratosthenes returned, gathered friends, and then killed him in his wife’s bedroom
significance =
shows how worried Athenian men were about adultery
demonstrates possible deviations from common idea of Athenian women
Euphiletus’ wife tells him she goes to the neighbours’ alone after dark to get a lamp and he sees this as normal, suggesting that she has some autonomy
Importance of sophistry and rhetoric in greek law and society (the speech appealed to the fears of the all male jury)
