Henry VIII Flashcards
Define Reformation
A movement in Europe at the start of the 16th century that reformed that changed the Catholic church and its problems to establish a newly reformed Protestant Church
Define ‘The Break With Rome’
- removed the power of the Pope in England - the technical and legal change in the status of the English Church
Define ‘Divorce’
- A statement used to describe the end of Henry’s marriage to Catherine of Aragon - Divorce is not allowed, even today, in the Catholic Church
Define ‘Annulment’
- the term used to describe the divorce - an annulment states that the marriage was not legal in the first place - only the Pope has the power to grant this
What are 4 criticism of the Catholic Church before the Reformation?
1 - Support fell for the Papacy 2 - Decline in respect for religious orders 3 - Criticism of images and pilgrimages 4 - Early problems of the Church (Pluralism, Absenteeism, Anti-clericalism and Lollards)
What are 4 pieces of evidence that the Church was healthy before the reformation?
1 - There was significant support for Parish Churches, shown in the donations from wills 2 - Sacraments were still largely popular and supported 3 - Religious Guilds were still strongly supported 4 - Intercession still gained mass support and there were continued foundation of Chantry in England
How did Henry use the Bible to support his annulment?
- He used the Old Testament, Leviticus Chapter 20 Verse 16 - Here it stated, “If a man shall take his brother’s wife, it is an impurity; he hath uncovered his brother’s nakedness; they shall be childless (sonless).”
How did Catherine of Aragon’s supporters use the Bible to challenge the Annulment?
- Catherine used the book of Deuteronomy, which stated it was a man’s duty to marry his brother’s wife after his death and have children on his brother’s behalf - Catherine’s followers also argued that the Leviticus argument that Henry used was only applicable when a Brother was still alive
What was William Tyndale’s book?
‘Obedience of a Christian Man’
What was Simon Fish’s book?
‘Supplication of the Beggars’
What was Christopher St Germaine’s book?
‘Doctor and Student’
What did William Tydale argue?
He used evidence form the Old Testament to defend the power and authority of Kings in their own country; excluding ‘foreign’ powers such as the Pope
What did Simon Fish argue?
He argued against the ‘greedy and over-fed clerics’
What did Chrisopher St Germain Argue?
He emphasised the role of the State in controlling the Church, thus acknowledging Henry VIII’s right to govern the Church in England
What was the Charge of Preamunire and what year did this happen?
- 1530 - This was a law banning the support of the Pope in England - Henry charged 15 of the upper clergy with supporting Wolsey’s abuse of power against the King
What was the Supplication of the Ordinaries and what year did this happen?
- 1532 - It was a petition calling the King to deal with the abuses and corruption of the clergy - This led Cromwell to be invited to join Henry’s inner circle
What was the Act for Submission of the Clergy and what year did this happen?
- 1532 - This was a document giving him power to veto Church laws and to choose bishops (even if not approved by Rome)
What was the Act of Annates and what year did this happen?
- 1532 - Despite opposition, parliament passed and act preventing the payment of Annates to Rome, suspended for 1 year.
What was the Act of Restraint of Appeals and what year did this happen?
- 1533 - This was passed by parliament denying Henry’s subject’s the right to appeal to the Pope against the decision in English Church Courts - This effectively prevented Catherine of Aragon from seeking Pope arbitration when the divorce case came before the courts
What was the Act of Supremacy and when did this happen?
- 1534 - This acknowledged the King as the head of the Church and any denial of royal supremacy was counted as treason punishable by death - This was the final removal of Papal power in England
What was the Treason Act and when did this happen?
- 1534 - This was used to enforce the Act of Supremacy - denial of royal supremacy was punishable by death - Denial could be through deed, act or spoken word
What was the First Act of Succession and what year did this happen?
- 1534 - Declared the marriage to Catherine invalid and therefore made Mary illegitimate - Succession to the throne was now going to be the children of Henry VII and Anne Boleyn - The whole nation was to swear an oath to observe the Act of Succession, to deny succession was treasonable - This act led to the downfall of Thomas More
What was the Act for First Fruits and Tenths and when did this happen?
- 1534 - Clerical taxes were to go to the King and not the Pope
What were 5 reasons that Henry decided upon the dissolution of the monasteries?
1 - It reduced the opponents to the break from Rome (especially Franciscans and Carthusians) 2 - Henry didn’t like monasteries being dedicated to outside of England (the ‘imperial idea’) 3 - Financial motives - the church had huge financial resources and there was a concern for a Catholic crusade 4 - Patronage and greed - the dissolution brought great wealth to Henry 5 - Continental influence - the same was being done in Germany
How did the Act of First Fruits and Tenths help dissolve the monasteries?
- Allowed Henry to tax the Church - These taxes were previously paid to the Church and Pope when someone was appointed (first fruit) and then a tenth of their income after that yearly
How did the Act of Supremacy help Henry get rid of the monasteries?
It gave Henry the power to supervise and reform all religious establishments in England
What did Cromwell do in 1535 to close monasteries?
- Sent out commissioners to survey the value of monastic lands and properties to produce a report, the ‘Valour Eccesiaticus’ (value of the church) - He also sent out a second set of commissioners to investigate the moral and spiritual standards in monasteries
What was the Act for the Dissolution of Smaller Monasteries and when did this happen?
- 1536 - It was based on Cromwell’s findings and closed all religious houses with lands valued under £200 a year - New commissioners were sent out to supervise this, but this triggered the Yorkshire and Lincolnshire rebellion
What happened in 1536-37 to aid the closure of the monasteries?
The opposition of the Carthusian Monks to the dissolution of their establishments led to their execution by Henry
What was the Act of Dissolution of Larger Monasteries and what year did this happen?
- 1539 - This act extended the closure to all religious houses except chantries (which were small private chapels in which prayers were said for the souls of dead)
What was established in 1540 and what did this aim to do?
- the Court of Augmentations - Richard Rich was the Chancellor - aimed to handle the property and income from the dissolved monasteries
What was the impact of closing monasteries on Monastic buildings
- Henry was charged with cultural vandalism for destroying Gothic buildings and books - Henry invested some of the money into education, creating new cathedral schools in Canterbury, Carlisle, Bristol and Chester - Christ Church Oxford and Trinity College Cambridge were established
What was the impact of closing monasteries on Monks and Friars?
- The majority found alternative jobs in the church - 6500/8000 moved on with their pension
What was the impact of closing monasteries on Nuns?
2000 nuns were not allowed to marry or become priests
What was the impact of closing monasteries on the poor?
- There was a detrimental effect upon an already worsening problem - however Dickens argues in ‘The English Reformation’,’the theory that the suppression of the monasteries had a major cause of urban decay has nothing to commend it’
What was the impact of closing monasteries on Henry’s profit?
- Henry was charged with squandering wealth - May 1543, there was a rush to sell land with all the profit going on wars with Scotland and France - Just over 1/2 of monastic lands remained in his possession until 1547, showing he wasn’t completely reckless - 1547 - the Crown made £800,000 from sales and saved harsh taxation
How much had Crown income grown by by 1540?
By 1540, Crown income had doubled from 120,000 to £250,000 Per Annum
What did the reselling of Monastic land value at?
£1.3 million
What position was Thomas Cromwell given in 1531?
1531 - a place King’s Royal Council
What position was Thomas Cromwell given in 1532?
1532 - Master of the King’s Jewels, giving him access to the King’s private rooms in the palace
What position was Thomas Cromwell given in 1533?
1533 - Chancellor of the Exchequer and Master of the Rolls, leading roles in the legal system
What position was Thomas Cromwell given in 1535?
1535 - Vicar General (created for Cromwell), gave him the power to institute Church reform
What position was Thomas Cromwell given in 1536?
1536 - Lord Privy Seal and Principle Secretary of the Royal Council, also became a Baron
What position was Thomas Cromwell given in 1540?
1540 - Lord Great Chamberlain and Earl of Essex
What did Thomas Cromwell do to aid the annulment?
- He took over from Wolsey in management of the divorce - Between 1532 and 1536, he devised a strategy for the divorce and drafted a series of Acts that destroyed the power of Rome - He created the Church of England and gave Henry unprecedented power and status as a monarch
Who did Thomas Cranmer replace within the Church?
- Archbishop Warham in 1532 - Henry asked for his replacement to be Cranmer despite him not having a role within the Church
What was Archbishop Cranmer’s role and why did Henry appoint him?
- Archbishop of Canterbury - Henry chose him to put pressure on the Pope to allow his divorce and also saw advantages of having a supporter as a key English Churchman
What did Cranmer do to help the reformation?
- authorised the much desired royal divorce after the 1533 Act of Restraint and Appeals prohibited Catherine from appealing to the Pope
Name 4 key people/groups that opposed Henry VIII’s changes
- John Fisher - Carthusian Monks - Elizabeth Baron - Thomas More
Why and how did John Fisher oppose Henry?
- He believed the powers of the Pope were God-given - He also believed that denial of Pope supremacy was sinful - He opposed by being a close friend with HRE Charles V’s active ambassador in England and urging for a direct armed intervention from Charles V - His threat level is shown by his immediate execution
Why and how did Carthusian Monks oppose Henry?
- They followed strict Catholic religious orders - 1532- 33 they refused to accept the divorce - 1534 - resisted government pressure to agree a declaration against the power of the Pope - they had large numbers but many were placed in prisons with poor conditions
Why and how did Elizabeth Baron oppose Henry?
- She had visions of the Virgin Mary against Anne Boleyn - She rallied against the King in person when he visited Canterbury - She was executed with 5 of her followers, with this execution being considered a ‘political necessity’
Why and how did Thomas More oppose Henry?
- More was a devout Catholic, even when appointed Lord Chancellor - He resigned his post after the Submission of the Clergy - Also refused to take the Oath of Succession (recognising Mary as illegitimate) and was therefore executed
What 3 different forms of opposition were there?
- Open challenge - Remaining loyal to Catholicism (continuing practices) - Only acting upon government changes when forced to do so
Why were the key reasons that there was a lack of opposition to the Reformation in England?
- The unclear end result - Fear of government actions - Many ordinary people did not notice the changes
How was the Law of Treason (1534) used to suppress opposition to the Reformation?
This Act (1534) made it treasonable to: - attempt the death of the King, Queen or heir by malicious act - to call the King (words or writing) ‘heretic’, ‘tyrant’, ‘infidel’ or ‘usurper’. - to seize royal castles, ships, ordnance or munitions People would be killed violently to create fear
How was Royal Correspondence used to suppress opposition to the Reformation?
- Cromwell used JPs to send letters to him of those in their district that were still supporting the Pope - on 3rd April 1535, he wrote to bishops ordering the clergy to preach royal supremacy - he followed this up with a command to sheriffs to ensure that Bishops carried out this duty
How was propaganda used to suppress opposition to the Reformation?
- Using the printing press, large scale propaganda was produced - this was easy to read and understand for common people - it expressed new laws and reasoning behind changes - It was distributed throughout the country
How were Oaths used to suppress opposition to the Reformation?
- They were used to test an individuals religious and political commitment - Government made an enormous effort to get all important men to swear the first Act of Succession oath
What was the Lincolnshire Rising?
- Sunday 1st October - After rumours that Henry’s men were on their way to demolish churches and steal the town’s silver the town’s vicar, Thomas Kendall, led people to barricade themselves for the Church’s protection - Nicholas Melton led the movement and it manages to capture Lincoln Cathedral and involve the Gentry - They requested several things, but Henry sent the Duke of Suffolk to deal with the rising - As soon as it is clear that the rebellion can go no further, the gentry refused to lead any further and the rebellion collapsed
Summarise the causes Pilgrimage of Grace
- 16th October 1536 - The rising was inspired by the recent events in Lincolnshire - The rebels called themselves ‘pilgrims’ and created the rising to protect Almighty God, his fiath and the Holy Church from reformation
Summarise the events of the Pilgrimage of Grace
- A lawyer named Robert Aske led several thousand men into York taking the city unopposed - They wore badges and carried banners depicting the five wounds suffered by Christ at his crucifixion - Members of the gentry were recruited to the rising, some joining out of shared conviction that Henry’s reforms were going to far - The pilgrims captured Pontefract castle and its defender Lord Darcy to their side
What were the consequences/actions of the Pilgrimage of Grace?
- Aske and his followers stood down and drew up some requests, asking mainly for the reestablishment of the monasteries, Mary to be legitimate and a parliament to be held at York or Nottingham - The Duke of Norfolk promised to take these to the King but got nothing but empty promises - In January 1567, a new rebellion led by Sir Francis Biggert started which gave Henry and excuse to punish the North for the PoG - The Duke of Norfolk was sent to pacify the region and 178 people were executed - Aske was charged with raising the rebellion and was hanged in York on the 12th July 1537
What evidence was there that the Pilgrimage of Grace was a threat?
- The scale of the rebellion - 40,000 men - Cromwell was less powerful after this, falling in 1540 - The rebellion spread over 6 states in the North - It involved the Gentry and other people in power such as the Duke of Norfolk - Henry did implement some more conservative measures in the Bishops Book after the rebellion
What evidence is there that the rebellion was not a threat?
- The dissolution of the monasteries continued to happen, and worsened in 1539 - Henry did not have to use much force, first only giving a pardon - Cromwell survived the attack and continued in power for 3 more years - Henry’s promises never happened and the reformation continued
What are 3 signs that England was still Catholic upon the death of Henry?
- Six Articles Act of 1539 - The fall of Cromwell in 1540, and his replacement the Pro-Catholic Conservative faction - The main doctrines in the English Church remained Catholic
What were the signs that England was Protestant upon Henry’s death?
- Cranmer remained Archbishop of Canterbury and survived attempts by the conservative faction to discredit him - Catherine Parr, Henry’s last wife was also interested in reformist ideas - The country remained entirely separated from the Pope’s control, with English bibles being available and the worshipping of Saints being reduced significantly
What was the 6 Articles Act and what year did this happen?
- 1539 - This brought a temporary end to the gradual process of introducing Protestant beliefs - It enforced Catholic beliefs upon: - Eucharist (bread and wine become Jesus) - Communion (bread was only for the laity) - Seven Sacraments essential for salvation - The need for Priests to remain celibate
Which doctrines remained Catholic at Henry’s death?
- still a belief in Transubstantiation and Eucharist - all 7 Catholic sacraments remained in force - confession remained an essential part of devotion - Clergy could not marry
Which doctrines of the Church of England had elements of Protestantism?
- Cranmer introduced English elements into services - The Great Bible of 1539 was introduced to replace the Latin version as an authorised English translation - There was much less emphasis on Saints and the laity were forbidden to go on pilgrimages to worship saints - Saints days reduced to 25
Why was it difficult to define the religion in England upon Henry’s death in 1547?
1 - Ordinary people left no record of what they believed as many were illiterate. Even if they did, at this time there was no clear ‘Catholic’ or ‘Protestant’ side, just conflicting ideas 2 - Many people who accepted Henry as the head of the Church were not enthusiastic for Protestantism, so we cannot accurately see how strong the belief was at his death 3 - Many people who had adhered to the change welcomed the reversion back to Catholicism in Mary’s reign 4 - There had been many Catholic squabbles previously in history so people of this time didn’t know the extent of change or what the final result would be
When was William Tyndale’s Bible burnt?
- 1530 - This was seen as an attack against heresy
When were the Clergy accused of Praemunire?
- December 1530 - This attacked the power of the Catholic church through ecclesiastical courts in England.
Why is the Convocation of Canterbury significant in terms of religious event?
- He was one of the first to recognise Henry as Head of the Church ‘so far as the law of Christ allows’ - This marked how far the Church was willing to go in allowing Henry more power.
Were annulments hard to obtain by the Pope?
- No - Louis XII of France had secured one - This tells us that Henry was not alone in his ideas
Guy on the problems of Henry’s annulment?
- ‘much of Henry VIII’s trouble sprang from his egoism’
How much money did Henry gain from the dissolution of the monasteries?
- £1.3million from 1536-47
How much of monastic lands were in the Crown’s hands by 1547?
- only around 1/3 of monastic property wsa left in crown lands by 1547
What was the affect of the dissoluion of the monasteries on the clergy?
- 7000 were dispossessed - abbots disappeared from the house of Lords
What title was Henry’s illegitimate son given in 1525? What does this show?
- Duke of Richmond - This highlights that Henry was worried about his lack of a male heir, potentially setting up his son to become king
How many rebels were in the Pilgrimage of Grace?
- 40,000
Who were the Lollards?
- these were followers of John Wycliffe - They condemned transubstantiation - wrote the first English bible
What was Wolsey’s background?
- Butcher’s son - He was educated at Oxford University -Wolsey then entered the Church before his political career developed
What was Wolsey’s first major role?
A Royal almoner
When did Wolsey become Chief Minister?
1513 - just before the end of the first French war.
When did Wolsey become Lord Chancellor?
1515
When was Wolsey made Cardinal of England by the Pope?
1516
When was Wolsey made Papal Legate by the Pope?
1518
What other church roles did Wolsey hold?
He appointed himself Bishop of Durham and Bishop of Winchester
What was the importance of Chief Minister?
- In charge of government finances: taxes and spending - Day-to-day control of government: decision making and problem solving - Control of appointments to jobs in national, regional and local government
What was the importance of Lord Chancellor?
- In charge of England’s legal system: courts, laws, justice and punishments - In charge of the Court of Star Chamber - In charge of the Court of Chancery: could interfere with wills, inheritances and properties
What was the Court of Star Chamber?
This Created by Henry VII with Sanction of parliament in 1487, and intended to end perversion of English justice by powerful nobles who used intimidation and bribery to win favourable verdicts in court cases. King Councillors sat as judges, more equitable & amenable to royal will.
What is the Court of Chancery?
- The main court of law in England - Wolsey could oversee all cases in this court and he tried to use it to uphold ‘fair justice’ - It dealt with cases such as enclosure, contracts and things left in wills
What was the main problem with the Court of Chancery?
It became overloaded with cases. This meant that many cases were not heard or had to be dismissed.
What was the importance of the title of Cardinal?
Cardinal was a senior representative to the Pope in Rome. It put him in charge of taxation to the church, appointments to church jobs, and the church laws, courts and punishments
What was the importance of the title of Papal Legate?
Papal Legate allowed the bearer to be the Pope in their country, giving Wolsey powers simulacra to the Pope in England which he would later attempt to use to his advantage. It was a rare title.
What groups/who was opposed to Wolsey?
- Parliament - the nobility - the Boleyn faction - Duke of Buckingham - Earl of Surrey
Why did parliament oppose Wolsey?
- His ‘excessive’ taxation angered the gentry of England - the nation was financially unable to sustain the war. - Wolsey had passed measures that took away benefit to landowners - actions against engrossing and enclosure. - The case of Richard Hunne also angered representatives.
Why did the Boleyn faction oppose Wolsey?
- Religious differences - Wolsey was a Catholic and the Boleyn faction were staunch protestants. - Wolsey’s ideas conflicted with that of Boleyn’s (Abbess of Wilton) leading to a battle for influence.
Why did the nobility dislike Wolsey?
- He was a butcher’s son - “promoted beyond his station”. New men were generally despised by the nobility. - Wolsey’s power and influence were far greater than theirs, making him a career threat. - He passed measures which disadvantaged the nobility. Promoting new men, measures against engrossing, improving and encouraging the use of the court of star chamber, etc.
When was a conciliar form of government in place?
1509 - 1514
What factors were important in ending the conciliar form of government?
1 - Henry wasn’t impressed by some of his Father’s senior councillors not supporting a war in France 2 - Henry became more attuned to governing, asserting his right to control decision-making 3 - Henry surrounded himself with like-minded people who all believed in the ‘old-guard’ 4 - He became particularly impressed by Wolsey and his effective management of the French campaign
Who were Henry VIII’s ‘minions’
A group of young courtiers who enjoyed Henry’s personal favour
What was Wolsey’s method of dealing with ‘the minions’?
- Eltham ordinances - Moved nobles who did not like him away as diplomats or war officials. - Took actions to weaken the influence of the nobility - Duke of Buckingham and Earl of Surrey.
When were the Eltham Ordinances? What did they do?
January 1526, Wolsey wanted to reduce household expenditure and so reduced the number of Gentlemen in the Privy chamber - an area that he could not control
What is the Groom of the Stool and what did Wolsey do to this role?
Groom of the Stool - the most intimate of the English Monarch’s courtiers ( a lot of confidence was placed in this role) Wolsey replaced Sir William Compton with a more compliant Henry Norris.
Why did Wolsey remain in Henry’s favour?
- By holding the posts of Cardinal/Papal Legate and Chief Minister, he was the means through which Henry could control the Church - His multiple power bases = could effectively and quickly carry out what Henry wanted with little opposition, and also meant he had more opportunities, means and methods to act flexibly - It was in the interest of both Wolsey’s masters that they support his power bases as long as their interests, aims and policies remained aligned.
In what ways were Henry and the Pope aligned?
Through the defeat of heresy (especially Protestantism) and pro-Spanish, anti-French alliance
What were Wolsey’s methods in dealing with over powerful nobles? (4)
- Duke of Buckingham - Ordered him to London where he was arrested for treason and later executed. - Earl of Surrey - Forced onto the jury presiding over Buckingham’s case, was forced to sign his friend’s death warrant. - Minions - Eltham Ordinances moved them out of the ear of the king (privy chamber) and were replaced by pro-Wolsey nobles or not at all. - Some of the nobility were sent away as ambassadors to foreign courts or put in charge of elements of the military in times of war.
Why could Wolsey not overcome the Boleyn faction?
Henry was “in love” with Boleyn. This infatuation and her manipulative denial to become Henry’s mistress put Henry into her control, Wolsey being rather unable to do the same.
Who was the Earl of Surrey?
Nobleman with wealth, lands and power. Was the nobilities favourite replacement for Wolsey - was respected and intellectual. Was forced to sign his friend’s (the Duke of Buckingham) death warrant.
What were Wolsey’s legal reforms?
- Court of Star Chamber encouraged to use. The poor were given a voice to prosecute powerful nobles. This ensured an increased case-load from 12 cases a year to over 120. The result was the establishment of overflow courts.
What did Wolsey do to the tax system?
Reformed it so it was now based on personal income known as the parliamentary subsidy. Before it was a fixed rate which didn’t account for inflation.
What were Wolsey’s religious reforms?
- Wolsey reformed religious houses, closing those with fewer than 6 monks. - He reinstated benefit of the clergy where you only had to recite a psalm to prove you were a member of the church. This allowed you to be tried by church courts which were more lenient. - Wolsey actively moved against the protestant faction, encouraging book burning and the isolation of sympathisers. Executions were, however, not commonplace.
What were Wolsey’s reforms to government (vaguely proposed or completed)?
- Henry was in agreement with Wolsey to reform the state of government away from privy chamber amongst other measures. He did only change the privy chamber through the Eltham Ordinances.
Who was Richard Hunne?
A London merchant who, when he registered his dead baby son for burial, was asked by the priest to pay for it not in money but by giving the insistent priest his baby’s christening robes, which Hunne refused - causing the priest to sue Hunne in a church court. Hunne counter-sued, accusing the priest of Praemunire. Hunne was also caught sheltering a heretic and then was found dead in his cell (murdered)
What is praemunire?
Allegiance to someone other than your king - in Wolsey’s case it was serving the Pope instead of the King.
What was Wolsey’s involvement in the second French war?
Military treaties and peace settlements.
How successful was Wolsey at raising tax for the second French war?
Unsuccessful. Initially he managed to raise a parliamentary subsidy of £230000 but upon request for a further £800000 he was rejected, leading to the amicable grant.
What was the Amicable Grant?
Wolsey trying to avoid using parliament to collect a tax. It was an incredibly unpopular answer that sparked a revolt.
How did Wolsey fail Henry in the second French war?
Failed to provide land or any spoils of war. He could not raise the money to invade France in its time of weakness and so no empire was gained. Henry’s partition plan was also rejected.
What was the result of the second French war?
Spain conquered northern Italy and gained extortionate amounts of money from the French monarchy. England gained nothing.
Why did Wolsey have to seek an annulment?
Overly powerful within the Catholic Church- ruined future career prospects to annul the marriage himself or convert to protestantism
What was Wolsey’s domestic failure to bring about an annulment of Henry’s marriage?
All proper proceedings were met but Cardinal Compaggio had been ordered by pope Leo X not to grant the annulment. He also refused to use his status as Papal Legate to pass the annulment.
Why wouldn’t the pope grant the annulment?
Under the control of Charles V who was the nephew of Catherine of Aragon - an insult to his family.
What was the treaty of Westminster?
An agreement between England and France whereby England financially supported France to invade Charles V in Northern Italy to free the pope.
What was Wolsey’s foreign policy failure to achieve the annulment?
When the treaty of Westminster and the ensuing war did not end with the pope free from Charles V, meaning that an annulment would still not be granted.
What battle ended the French attempt to free Italy from Charles V?
Landriano 1529
What were Wolsey’s domestic successes?
Legal and Church reforms. Reforms to enclosure and engrossing.
What were Wolsey’s domestic failures?
Collection of tax to finance wars.
What caused Wolsey’s downfall in 1529? (possible factors)
Failure in domestic and foreign policy Failure to please and serve the king. Failure to crush the Boleyn faction which grew too powerful.
What is pluralism?
Holding more than one paid title within the Catholic Church.
What is absenteeism?
Holding a paid office but not attending and fulfilling the associated duties.
When did Henry VII die?
21st April 1509
When was Henry VII proclaimed King of England?
23rd April 1509
When did Henry VIII marry Catherine of Aragon?
11th June 1509
When was Henry and Catherine’s coronation?
24th June 1509
How old was Henry VIII when he came to the throne?
It was two months before his eighteenth birthday.
How many years had passed after the death of Arthur? What did Henry do in this time?
Seven years had passed since the death of Arthur, and in this time Henry had been preparing for his role as future king of England.
What had been done to prepare Henry for the role of King?
- he was well read - well educated - had some acquaintance with the new learning of Humanism
What did John Guy say about Henry’s mind?
it was ‘able but second rate’
What was Henry’s early impression and how did Eric Ives describe him?
The early impression Henry created was very positive and the modern historian Eric Ives describes Henry at this time as an ‘extrovert, affable and charming’.
How was Henry VII’s accession seen after Henry VII?
Henry VIII’s accession was welcomed as a breath of fresh air after the stultifying and rather sinister atmosphere associated with the influence of Empson and Dudley in the last years of his father’s reign.
What did the new king represent to Sir Thomas More?
‘the end of slavery, the fount of our liberty, the end of sadness and the beginning of joy’.
What did Henry have no experience in at the start of his reign?
Government or public affairs
How did Henry VIII’s version of kingship differ from his Father’s?
- He had a profound dislike for the business of government - found the writing of state papers both tedious and painful
What did Henry VIII’s new role allow him to do and how did he use this?
His new role allowed him to intervene suddenly in the business of government, in the process contradicting decisions or actions which had already been taken.
What did Henry VIII lack in his personality that Henry VII had? What did he do instead?
- Henry VIII lacked the work ethic that his many historians attributed to his Father. - He instead preferred to pass the time with good company. - This was evident in the courtly activities which followed his accession. - There was much emphasis on pageants, revelry, sports, hunting and tournaments
Why did the structure of government change under Henry VIII?
Henry VIII was rarely directly involved with the business of government.
What was there short-term emphasis on in Henry’s government?
In the Short term, there was a renewed emphasis on governing through the council, which then made two comebacks at later stages of the reign (1529-32 and 1540-47)
What else did Henry rely on to shape the structure of government?
- There were two periods in which Henry used chief ministers to meet his own needs. - The first of these was Thomas Wolsey, who was particularly adept at using the Star Chamber - The second was Thomas Cromwell, who developed his role as principal secretary
What four things did Henry VIII receive from his father?
- money (believed to be around £300,000, and Henry VII was the only Tudor not to leave debt) - unpopular mechanisms for extracting money - a peaceful foreign policy - a conciliar form of government
What did Henry VIII do to these four things at the start of his reign?
- the money inherited would disappear due to paying for the revival of a traditionally aggressive foreign policy towards France - The conciliar form of government would disappear due to the emergence of Fox’s former protege, Thomas Wolsey, as the focus of the government.
What big changes happened at the start of Henry VIII’s reign?
Some members of the council were able to dispose of others and establish themselves in power.
What did Richard Fox do at the start of Henry’s reign and who was he assisted by?
Richard Fox, who was assisted by Thomas Lovell and Richard Weston, secured the arrest of Richard Empson and Edmond Dudley. Henry VIII wasn’t involved in this, but was involved in the further decision to execute them.
What happened to the Council Learned in Law when Henry became King?
It was abolished by an Act of Parliament in 1510.
What else did Henry VIII do to distance himself from his Father’s regime?
- cancelled many Bonds and Recognisance - abolished council learned - executed Empson + Dudley
How did Henry VIII’s new take on Kingship affect his status in England?
It ensured his own popularity amongst the nobility and propertied classes, who considered themselves the victims of Henry VIII’s approach to taxation
What were Henry VIII’s key aims in the first years of his reign?
- to establish his status amongst European monarchs through marriage - to re-establish the role of the nobility - to establish himself as a warrior king through success in battle
Why did Henry VIII want to marry Catherine of Aragon quickly?
He was worried that Catherine of Aragon had been unfairly treated after they couldn’t wed before the death of Henry VII
Why did Henry VIII’s councillors want him to marry Catherine quite quickly?
As they believed it would deflect him from political matters, and allow them to continue with a concillar form of government as usual.
Why was the marriage between Catherine and Arthur initially successful?
- Henry VIII found it successful on a personal level - Catherine also exercised some influence over policy making in the first few years.
What problem became prominent by the mid 1520s?
Catherine of Aragon could never give Henry VIII a healthy male heir.
What had Henry VII done with the nobility during his reign?
- the nobility was largely frozen out of direct political influence by Henry VII - Henry’s peaceful foreign policy meant that they were denied their traditional outlet of the pursuit of military glory
What did Henry VIII do with the nobility that differed from Henry VII?
- Henry VIII shared to nobility’s taste for military glory - The nobility were generally young men who accompanied Henry in sports and revels - It was the nobility who accompanied Henry to war in Northern France, or the Marquis of Dorset or the Earl of Surrey to Scotland
Why did the nobility not achieve the political domination they desired?
Henry chose to promote the interests of Thomas Wolsey, the Churchman who had organised the war in France on his behalf.
Who was the Duke of Buckingham?
Buckingham, like Henry, was a descendant of King Edward III and the only English duke at the start of his reign
Why was the Duke of Buckingham executed in 1521?
- he had been a cause of concern for Henry for a while as he was muttering about issues such as the succession - He was tried in court as any discussion to what may happen after the King’s death could be treason - The duly found him guilty and quickly executed him; Wolsey was thought to be a key figure in his execution
Why did Henry VIII quickly go to war with France?
- he wanted to break from his Father’s foreign policy and pursuit military glory
What did Henry gain (or not gain) by going to war with France?
A common theme throughout Henry’s invasions; a vast amount of money was spent to gain a very small and insignificant amount of land.
What did Henry VIII confusingly do throughout his foreign policy?
His bouts of aggression were mixed with occasional alliances with the French against the Spanish and the HRE, although Henry was never foolish enough to go to war directly with the powerful Charles V
What were Henry’s aims in foreign policy?
1 - Honour and glory 2 - To be internationally recognised as a warrior king 3 - To secure the Tudor dynasty 4 - Financial gains and security
What was Henry’s first action for foreign policy?
In 1510, he extended the Treaty of Etaples. However this was under the guidance of his councillors, it was clear that Henry had different ideas about foreign policy, and wanted a more aggressive approach
When was the first French War, and why did Henry join this?
- 1512-1514 - Henry had an ancient claim, as King of England, to the French throne
What happened in the first phase of the first French War?
- Henry acted under the guidance of his Father in Law, Ferdinand of Spain - He sent an expedition led by Marquis of Dorset to help the Spanish - This fleet was easily defeated, and one of Henry’s closest friends (Admiral Edward Howard) was killed in a naval engagement
What evidence is there that the first phase of the first French war was a failure?
- His fleet achieved nothing - He was used as a distraction whilst Ferdinand successfully conquered Navarre
What happened in the second phase of the first French War?
- Was led by Thomas Wolsey - The king led 30,000 men from Dover to Calais, in an alliance with the HRE - The army advanced to Flanders and captured the fortress of Therouanne - Soon after this, the English successfully captured the French city of Tournai
What was the ‘Battle of the Spurs’?
- After the English captured Therouanne, the French sent a cavalry force to try and capture it back. - This was easily defeated by the English
Was the ‘Battle of the Spurs’ a significant victory?
- Although it did give Henry some military glory, this battle is widely recognised as little more than a skirmish - Propaganda claimed it to be a stunning victory - Geoffrey Elton claims it as ‘nothing more than a futile side show’
What evidence is there that the second phase of the First French war was a success?
- Henry achieved military glory, one of his aims - Henry showed his strength as a warrior king by claiming victory over Tournai and Therouanne
What evidence is there to suggest that the second phase of the FIrst French was was a failure?
- Therouanne was a more significant victory for Maximilian than the English, and it can be suggested that it benefited Maximilian more.
What happened after the King left the first French war?
- The war continued, but proved costly, so there was pressure for peace. - Maximilian and Ferdinand settled their differences with the King of France
What did Henry gain in the peace treaty signed after the first French war?
- England kept Tournai - France increased pension - Mary would marry Louis of France - Henry promised not to use the title ‘King of France’
What was the Battle of Flodden?
- September 1513 - King James IV of Scotland crossed the boarder with a considerable force, but was put down by a small army led by the Earl of Surrey and Catherine of Aragon. - James IV was killed, along with a significant number of the Scottish nobility. This left the infant James V on the throne - Henry VIII did little to build on the advantage of Flodden
Why was nothing gained from Henry’s military adventures of 1513?
- The war was costly, causing Henry to liquidate his father’s inheritance - There was problems of the taxation in Yorkshire, which narrowly avoided a full-scale revolt - The renegotiated French pension was lost - Tournai was sold back to the French for much less than the siege cost Henry.
What three points can be made about the basis of foreign policy between 1514-1526?
1 - England remained a minor power and could not compete with the powers of France and Spain 2 - Henry overestimated English power 3 - The ‘Auld Alliance’ between France and Scotland remained strong
What were the two major concequences of Henry’s lack of money in foreign policy?
1 - He was unable to exploit the weakness of Scotland following the Battle of Flodden 2 - He sought peace with France with a marriage settlement, but this was short-lived.
Who was Francis I and how did Henry VIII see him?
- King Louis XII died soon after the marriage to Mary, and Francis I took the French throne - Henry saw him as a direct threat, as he was a young and charismatic king similar to Henry himself
Who was Charles V and who did they form an alliance with?
- Ferdinand died in 1516, leaving his grandson Charles V on the throne. - Charles V became the HRE in 1519, and formed and alliance with the French in the Treaty of Cambrai
How did Francis I confirm his power as a ruler?
- In September 1515, Francis won a sweeping victory over the reputedly invincible Swiss at the battle of Marignano. - He forced a treaty with the Pope, took control of Milan and forced Queen Margaret to flee from Scotland
What was the Treaty of London (1518)
- A treaty of ‘perpetual peace’ led by Wolsey that ended England’s isolation by signing an agreement of peace with over 20 European powers - It was seen as a diplomatic, political and moral triumph - European rulers such as Francis I, Maximillian and Charles V signed
Why was the treaty of London significant/successful?
- It avoided costly warfare - Wolsey led a treaty of ‘collective security’, which had never been attempted previously - Made Henry’s position more prestigious, which was an aim in his Foreign Policy
Why was the Treaty of London a failure?
- The Treaty did not last, with the Hapsburg-Valois war breaking out in 1521 - England was still controlled by the more powerful nations of Europe
What was the Field of the Cloth of Gold?
- in 1520, Francis I and Henry VIII met up for two weeks in an event of power and prestige - The meeting ended on the 25th of June, with little achieved - The event lost some value in Henry’s eyes, as he lost a wrestling match with Francis - The event cost roughly £15,000
What did the Field of the Cloth of Gold achieve?
- Very little in terms of foreign policy - It was, however, a glorious opportunity of recognition for Henry - A treaty was signed with Charles V a few weeks later (Francis I enemy)
What was the Calais Conference?
An attempt to prevent war between France and Spain over Milan.
What was the Treaty of Bruges?
- This was a treaty that Wolsey organised between Henry and Charles V - Henry met with Charles to form an alliance
Why did Henry choose to ally with Charles V?
- He could improve his relations with the Pope - He beleived that he could gain more territory in France - Part of the deal was a marriage alliance of Mary, Henry’s youngest daughter and Charles.
Why and when did the Second French war begin?
- Francis I declared war on Charles V in April 1521, by invading Calais
What did Wolsey do to try and bring peace?
- He held a peace conference that the empire and France attended
What did Wolsey do in secret with the Second French war?
- Henry wanted to join the conflict, so Wolsey knew he had to pick a side - Wolsey double-dealed, meeting Charles at Bruges when out for the Calais Conference. - They agreed to declare war on France if no peace plans were made by Francis I
What was this secret meeting known as?
- Treaty of Bruges - It would happen after France paid the next installation of the French Pension
What war was Charles more invested in instead of the Second French War?
- He was more invested in the conflict in Northern Italy, as he had just recovered Milan. - English troops were sent to Picardy, but a number of the emperor’s troops lacked
How did English fortunes increase in the war in 1523?
The Duke of Bourbon, a powerful English nobleman, raised his army against Francis. Plans were quickly drawn up to have a three sided attack on Paris by the Dukes of Suffolk, Bourbon and imperial forces from the Netherlands.
What caused Henry to lose interest in the War vs France (1523)?
- Many abandoned their forces in Paris, causing Henry to lose interest and Wolsey to go back to negotiating peace.
Why did Henry and Wolsey look to secure an alliance with France in 1525?
- the treaty with Charles was not giving Henry as much as he hoped for, so Wolsey looked to form an alliance with France
What was the Battle of Pavia?
- A crucial moment in the conflict between Francis and Charles, in which Francis was captured and held captive
What did Henry suggest to Charles after the battle of Pavia?
He suggested a joint invasion upon France to achieve territorial gains, but Charles disagreed.
What did Charles’ disagreement mean for Henry?
- His ego was bruised and he had to back down - His resentment towards the emperor was reinforced when Charles rejected the marriage contract - Wolsey’s domestic prestige never really recovered from this
Why did the alliance with Charles V fail?
- Charles V opposed the annulment between Catherine and Henry - Francis had been heavily defeated by the imperial army, making Charles stronger and in less need of an ally - Charles V rejected Henry’s proposal for an attack on France to capitalise on Pavia - Charles cancelled his marriage that he agreed in the Treaty of Bruges
What was the Treaty of the More?
It was a Treaty signed in August 1525 with France.
What confirmed the shift in diplomacy towards the French after the Treaty of the More?
- The Anti-Hapsburg League (League of Cognac) - England gave financial aid to this
When did Wolsey become more committed to the Anti-Hapsburg League?
- After the Sack of Rome
What was the Sack of Rome?
A war in which the Pope was taken prisoner, against the League of Cognac.
What was the Treaty of Westminster?
- An agreement between England and France whereby England financially supported France to invade Charles V in Northern Italy to free the pope. - There was also a marriage agreement between Mary and Francis
What was the Treaty of Amiens?
- An Anglo-French agreement to attack Charles V
What did Henry do in 1528 to attack Charles V? Why did this make some people unhappy?
- Placed a trade embargo on Burgandy (just like his Father had done) - Charles V kept some English merchants hostage in Burgundy - This also caused economic difficulty after a poor harvest in England, and was not long after the amicable grant which cause Henry a lot of trouble.
What was the ‘Ladies Peace’, and what did this cause for Henry?
- 1529, also known as the Treaty of Cambrai - Negotiated by Margaret of Austria and Louise of Savoy, and was a settle to the conflict between the Pope and the HRE - This settlement did not involve Henry, leaving him diplomatically isolated.
What control did the English have in Ireland?
- Pale district - Land surrounding Dublin
Who was the dominant Irish nobleman at this time? What role did he have?
- Gerald Fitzgerald, ninth Earl of Kildare - He was both an English courtier and a servant servant of the crown, but also the most powerful of the Gaelic chiefs
What caused the relationship between the King and Fitzgerald to break down?
The revival of the Geraldine-Butler feud and the break from Rome
When was Kildare dismissed and what problems did this cause?
- 1534, leading to a major rebellion led by his son, Thomas Fitzgerald. - This was supressed with difficulty and great expense
What steps were taken after Kildare’s dismissal?
- There was an attempt to refashion Irish government, but this failed utterly - It required royal government through an English-born deputy, supported by a substantial military presence.
What made the situation in Ireland worse?
- The resentment amongst the Gaelic lords - Two nobles, Con O’Neill and Manus O’Donnell invaded the Pale in 1539 - The government eventually regained control, by establishing Ireland as a separate Kingdom, with English laws but Gaelic lordship. - The government did not have enough resources to carry through with these reforms, and the situation got more complex when there was a difference in opinion upon the religious reforms
What can be said about the final years of Henry VIII’s foreign policy?
- The 1530s saw Henry attempt to minimise the response of foreign powers to the Break with Rome - However, in the 1540s, Henry turned to a more aggressive foreign policy, similar to that seen in the early years of his reign
What was the battle of Haddon-Rig?
- After James V refused to attend religious talks with Henry VIII, England sent a small army into the Scottish Borders. - This army was defeated on 24th August 1542, by George Gordon, Earl of Huntly.
What was the battle of Solway Moss?
- Tensions were growing with Henry appointing himself Head of the Church of England - Henry asked to meet James V of Scotland, recently made king after Queen Margaret’s death - England invaded Scotland in 1542, forcing the to demands they could not possibly have met - This led to the Battle of Solway Moss, a heavy defeat for the Scottish
What happened shortly after the Battle of Solway Moss?
- James V died of fever - This left his one-week-old daughter Mary (Queen of Scots) on the throne
What position did the Battle of Solway Moss leave Henry in?
- Henry was in a great position to exploit the Scots weakness, however it has been argued that he did not take full advantage of this. - Henry’s main interest at this time was an invasion of France - This led Henry, instead of invading, to create parliamentary pressure as a means of securing his Scottish objectives
What was the ‘rough wooing’?
- A policy in which Henry VIII aimed to secure a marriage alliance between his son, Edward VI and Mary Queen of Scots - He also wanted to get rid of the ‘Auld Alliance’ that formed between Scotland and France - After the Scottish Parliament refused to ratify the Treaty of Greenwich, Henry sent forces to attack Edinburgh, Leith and St Andrews, burning down many buildings.
On what counts can Henry be criticised on his Scottish Foreign Policy?
1 - He neglected the opportunity to secure his policy by military force when he had the opportunity in 1542 2 - He failed to heed Sadler’s warnings about Scottish hostility to his intentions 3 - His ordering of Hertford into Scotland was simply a matter of retaliation. This gave no though to possible strategic objectives and simply served to antagonise the Scots further.
What was Henry’s main concern in foreign policy in 1544 and what evidence is there to support this?
- To facilitate a French invasion and gain military glory in France - The size of his army in 1544 reflects this - He set off to attack the French himself, despite his ill health
Who did Henry form an alliance in to facilitate the French invasion in 1544?
The emperor
What did Henry realise about the attack on France in the 3rd French war? What did he do instead?
- He had committed, with the imperial alliance to Paris, but this he soon realised that this would be futile. - The English Army instead confined itself to the vicinity of Calais
What did the English Army lose and gain in the third French War?
- Unsuccessfully besieged Montreuil - Captured Boulogne under the supervision of Charles Brandon, Duke of Suffolk
What happened on the day the Henry besieged Boulogne?
- Charles V and Francis I made a peace treaty at Crepy. - One of the agreements was that Francis’ youngest son would marry Charles younger daughter Maria.
What happened after the fall of Boulogne?
- The French managed to take land in the Isle of Wight and Sussex, but neither had the stregth or finances to engage in all-out-war - In 1546, Henry and Francis made a weary peace, in which Henry was promised a pension until 1551.
What was the Treaty of Ardres?
- 1546 - Agreed that if the French paid all of the outstanding French Pensions, Boulogne would be returned - Henry knew that this was unlikely
What evidence is there to suggest that Henry was successful in pursuing an active foreign policy against the French?
- 1513 - Battle of the Spurs lead to the capture of Therouanne and Tournai. - Agreed the first French Pension - 1544 - Boulogne captured and kept under the Treaty of Ardres (1546). - Another French pension was secured
What evidence is there to suggest that Henry was unsuccessful in pursuing an active foreign policy against the French?
- 1512 - embarrassment in his first expedition to France - Tournai sold back to French for less that it cost - Lost first French pension - 1522-23 - costly failed campaigns in France, caused unrest at home through Amicable Grant taxation - 1544 - hugely expensive war at the cost of £2 million, with little achieved to show for it. - 1545 - French landed counter invasion in Isle of Wight and sent forces to support the Scots in a ventual peace treaty
What evidence is there to suggest that Henry was successful in his aim to gain honour and glory?
- 1520 - Francis I was respected at the Field of the Cloth of Gold - Charles V - treaty of Bruges
What evidence is there to suggest that Henry VIII was unsuccessful in his aim to gain honour and glory?
- Field of the Cloth of Gold achieved little - Charles V - Henry undid the success of the the Treaty of Bruges by crassly trying to used Charles’ success at Pavia (1525) as a springboard to take Northern France - This led to the marriage alliance with Princess Mary being broke off. - Never really gained success against Charles or Francis
What evidence is there that Henry was successful in his aim to protect the security of England’s boarders
- 1513 Battle of Flodden - 1542 Battle of Solway Moss - 1536 - Irish rebellion crushed and the country brought to heel in the 1540s
What evidence is there to suggest that Henry VIII was unsuccessful in his aim to protect the security of England’s borders?
- ‘Rough Wooing’ - led to the powerful Earl of Arran withdrew his support and lost the chance to unite the kingdom, instead enraging Scots and strengthening the Auld Alliance
What evidence is there to suggest that Henry VIII was successful in his aim to maintain good trade links with the Netherlands?
- They remained on largely strong terms throughout Henry’s reign, much as it had been during the reign of Henry VII
What evidence is there to suggest that Henry VIII was unsuccessful in his aim to maintain good trade links with the Netherlands?
- England’s offer to support France in a war against Charles V in 1528 led to a trade embargo, which included all trade with the Netherlands - This led to unrest and near rebellion in Southern England
What evidence is there to suggest that Henry VIII was successful in his aim to be a European Peacemaker
- 1518 - Treaty of London, established general European peace
What evidence is there to suggest that Henry VIII was unsuccessful in his aims to be a European peacemaker?
- After 1533 - isolated in Europe after Break with Rome, was in no position to act as a peacemaker - 1539 - Pope attempting to organise a crusade against Henry
What evidence is there to suggest that Henry was successful in his aims to secure the Tudor dynasty?
- Marriage to Catherine of Aragon in 1509 produced a female heir in Mary - Marriage to Anne Boleyn produced a female heir in Elizabeth - Marriage to Jayne Seymour produced Edward VI - male heir
What evidence is there to suggest that Henry VIII was unsuccessful in his aim to secure the Tudor dynasty?
- Marriage to Catherine of Aragon failed to produce a male heir. Mary was made illegitimate with Succession Act - 1540 - marriage with Anne of Cleves - divorce within months - no new heir and foreign alliance undone - His eventual heir, Edward VI, did not come from a foreign marriage - 1543 - Edward’s arranged marraige to Mary Queen of Scots was not ratified by the Scottish Parliament and the unification of the two kingdoms fails.
When was the Act in Restraint of Appeals?
- Early 1533
What did the Act in Restrain of Appeals do?
- Placed all ecclesiastical jurisdiction in the King’s hands - Prevented appeals in legal cases being made to Rome.
What was the importance of the Act in Restraint of Appeals?
- This prevented Catherine of Aragon appealing to Rome in the case of the Annulment - It had the support of Parliament, and thus allowed Henry to be granted the Annulment - overall it was a significant step towards ending Papal authority in England.
When was the Act forbidding papal dispensation and payment of Peter’s pence?
- 1534
What did the Act Forbidding Papal Dispensation and Payment of Peter’s Pence do?
- This restricted the archbishops right to allow priests to hold more than one Parish. - It also prevented payments of taxation to Rome.
What was the importance of the Act Forbidding Papal Dispensation and Payment of Peter’s Pence?
- It meant that all ecclesiastical powers were now in the hands of the King - It was popular with the laity as many saw the clergy as greedy.
When was William Tyndale’s Bible burnt?
- May 1530 - This was an attack on heresy against Catholicism
When was the First Act of Annates?
- 1532
What did the First Act of Annates do?
- Banned the payment of Annates to Rome - It also threatened that bishops could be consecrated by English authorities
What was the significance of the First Act of Annates?
- It removed the chief source of papal revenue in England and challenged one of the Pope’s main functions as leader of the church
What was the Supplication of the Ordinaries?
- March 1532 - Clergy were to enact no Church law without royal permission - Existing Church law was to be examined by Royal commission
What was the Submission of the Clergy?
- May 1532 - The Clergy accepted the King and not the Pope as their lawmaker - This led to the resignation of Thomas More
What was the Second Act of Annates?
- January 1534 - confirmed the First Act of Annates - Abbots and bishops were now to be appointed by the King, rather than the Pope
What was the Act for the Submission of the Clergy?
- March 1534 - This meant that appeals in ecclesiastical matters were now to be handled by the King’s Court of Chancery rather than the Archbishop’s court.
What was the First Act of Succession?
- March 1534 - This registered Henry’s marriage to Catherine as invalid, and replaced it with his marriage to Anne. - The Crown was also now to pass to Henry and Anne’s children - Nation was to take an oath to uphold their marriage, with it being treason to deny this.
When was the Act of Supremacy?
- November 1534
What did the Act of Supremacy do?
- declared that Henry was ‘justly and rightfully Supreme Head of the Church of England’. - allowed Henry the right to carry out visitations of the monastaries
What was the Treason Act?
- December 1534 - This listed key treasonable crimes - some examples were calling the King a heretic - Treason could now be defined as intent expressed in word, writing or in deed.
What was the Act for First Fruits and Tenths?
- December 1534 - This meant that clerical taxes were to go to the King, rather than the Pope.
When was Cromwell made Vice-gerent in Spirituals?
- January 1535 - Shows that Henry was leaning towards more reformist ideas at this time
What was the Valor Ecclesiasticus?
- January 1535 - This was a survey commissioned by Cromwell into the wealth and condition of the Church
When was the Act for the Dissolution of Lesser Monasteries?
- February 1536 - This closed down the smaller monasteries which were under £200 in value
When was Anne Boleyn beheaded?
-May 1536 - He married Jane Seymour the next day
What was the Act of Ten Articles?
- July 1536 - This rejected the ‘Seven Sacraments’ of the Catholic doctrine, leaving only 3 - baptism, eucharist and pennance. - This was a clear move towards Protestantism.
What were the Royal Injunctions to the Clergy?
- August 1536 - These ordered the clergy to 1 - defend the Royal Supremacy in sermons 2 - abandon pilgrimages 3 - give money for educational purposes to teach children the Lord’s Prayer, the 10 commandments and other scriptures
What was the Bishops Book?
- July 1537 - This rediscovered the four ‘lost’ sacraments, but they were to be of lesser value. - THere was also a drift towards Protestantism, as there was no discussion of transubstantiation, Mass was glossed over, the special status of the priests was understated and purgatory was present only by implication.
What was the ‘Matthew Bible’?
- This was a distinctly Protestant version of the Bible that had the King’s permission.
When was the Truce of Nice signed by Charles V and Francis I? What impact did this have on English religion?
- This truce brought a temporary end to the conflict between the two Catholic powers - It severely threatened Henry, as it risked him being invaded by both powers - It prompted Henry to move closer to Catholicism in the Act of Six articles
What was the Second Royal Injunctions issued by Cromwell?
- September 1538 - The English Bible was to be placed in all parishes within two years - all births, marriages and deaths were to be registered by parishes - people actively discouraged from pilgrimages - relics removed from churches
When was Henry excommunicated?
- December 1538 by Pope Paul III
When was the ‘Great Bible’ published?
- April 1539
What was the Act of Six Articles?
- June 1539 - radical shift back to Catholicism - confirmed - transubstantiation, mass, confession - banned - marriage of priests (or anyone who had taken vow of chastity), communion by lay people - severe penalties to those who disobeyed
What was the Act for the Dissolution of Greater Monasteries?
- All monasteries were closed and their land passed to the Crown
When was Cromwell executed?
- July 1540
When did Henry marry Anne of Cleves?
- January 1540
When did Henry annul Anne of Cleves?
- July 1540
When did Henry marry Catherine Howard?
- July 1540
What was the Act for the Advancement of True Religion?
- May 1542 - This restricted access to the English Bible to upper-class men and women in private
What was the King’s Book?
- May 1542 - This revised the Bishops Book, but confirmed Transubstantiation and the Six Articles - It was written by Henry himself, encouraging preaching and attacking images. - also known as the ‘Necessary Doctrine and Erudition of a Christian Man’
When did Henry marry Catherine Parr?
- July 1543
When was English litany introduced to churches?
- May 1544 - It replaced Catholic latin litany but was optional
What was the Chantries Act?
- This allowed for the dissolution of chantries, but was not enforced until the reign of Edward VI
What is the background of Thomas Cromwell?
- Was born around 1485 in Putney - Humble origins
Who was Cromwell the advisor of in his early days and for how long?
- Wolsey - Between 1526 and 1529
What did early historians think of Thomas Cromwell?
- early historians argue that Cromwell was ruthlessly dedicated to the King, and worked entirely to his command
How does Elton present Cromwell?
- Elton argues that Cromwell was a central figure in the revolution of government and the genius that created the English Reformation
How have historians presented Cromwell since Elton’s arguments?
- Tend to agree with him, but not to such a high extent
How can Wolsey and Cromwell’s roles be compared?
- Wolsey had a much easier time passing laws, as Henry was youthful and inexperience
How did Thomas Cromwell change the privy council?
- changed the privy council from 70-90 members to 20 members - these members were trained lawyers or bureaucrats
What did Cromwell do to manage the finances created by the Break with Rome?
- Created 4 key courts - Court of Augmentations - The Court of General Surveyors - The Court of First Fruit and Tenths - The Court of Wards
What was the Court of Augmentations?
- Made in 1536 - Controlled land and finances previously under the control of the Catholic Church
What was the Court of General Surveyors?
- This handled ex-monastic lands, before it was amalgamted into the Court of Augmentations
What was the Court of First Fruit and Tenths?
- This collected the money that was previously sent to Rome as annates
What was the Court of Wards?
- Collected money from the estate of a minor when they had inherited the land
What was the traditional role of Parliament?
- Often dealt with finances - Was used frequently in the Wars of the Roses, when finances were insecure, but was not used often under Edward IV or Henry VII
What were Cromwell’s aims in changing Parliament?
- meet more regularly - have more power - needed to be more reliable in giving Henry what he wanted
What were Cromwell’s physical changes to Parliament?
- MPs had to physically move to one side or the other when voting on an issue - This meant that Cromwell could easily see who opposed him, and intimidate them - Moreover, Cromwell wrote letters to those who opposed him, telling them that they need not attend the next meeting, meaning that Parliament was comprised wholly of those who supported his reforms
How did Cromwell use Propaganda?
- He would created leaflets and books on his future laws in order to sway the opinion of those voting on them
How did Cromwell use Parliament?
- Cromwell combined the power of Parliament in passing Laws, with the authority of the King to create laws that were of the highest authority
Why did Cromwell use Parliament more frequently?
- He used Parliament more frequently as his changes were risky and revolutionary, they needed to be passed into a strong law that was of the highest authority
What happened to the volume of English Trade in the first half of the 16th century?
It increased (with occasional downturns)
What industries saw a continuous rise?
Cloth exports, exports of hides and tin
What market declined?
Raw wool
Which export almost doubled in Henry’s reign?
Woollen cloth
What does the increased import of wine suggest?
That the spending power of the more prosperous classes increased
What was the leading route for exports from England?
From London to Antwerp, from which it was often sent to customers in Central Europe and the Baltic
Where was exported cloth often travelling through and what problems did this cause?
An increasing proportion of cloth was travelling through London. This had a negative effect on other ports, particularly Bristol, and some other east coast ports such as Hull or Boston and traders found it hard to compete with their London rivals
Where else enjoyed a boom in trading?
Southampton, especially with trade with Venice
What was the biggest change in the cloth industry?
The increase in cheaper fabrics such as kersey
What was kersey?
A coarse woollen cloth which was lighter than the traditional English broadcloth and which took its name from the village of Kersey in Suffolk. Its lightness broadened its appeal
What percentage of cloth exports were transported by English merchants?
about 70% from the 1550s
How did the woollen industry operate?
largely on a domestic basis, with children carding the wool, women spinning and men weaving it. This was then sent for specialist treatment such as fulling or dyeing which appeared in specialist units around the country
Which areas saw the greatest growth in the cloth industry?
- West Riding of Yorkshire - East Anglia (especially south Suffolk) - Parts of the West Country (especially Gloucestershire, Wiltshire and Devon)
Which people were able to make great profit in the cloth industry?
- Rich and entrepreneurial clothiers - They were not only able to acquire huge wealth, but they also were able to enhance their social status
Who is a good example of someone who was able to enhance their lives with the cloth industry?
- William Stumpe - He became MP for Malmesbury, high sheriff for the county, wealthy landowner and beneficiary from the dissolution of the monasteries
What industry did see some growth?
The mining industry
Which tin remained a prize export?
Cornish Tin
Where was lead mining growing in importance?
- Northeast of England - Newcastle supplied an increasing amount to the trades of London
How many blast furnaces were there by the middle of the century?
- 26 - these produced an increasing amount of iron ore in Kent and West Sussex
What was Henry VIII fairly uninterested in compared to his father?
Exploration
What was Robert Thorne involved in at this time?
An Iceland and Newfoundland fishery
Who was Sebastian Cabot and where did he remain for the majority of Henry’s reign?
- An Explorer - He remained in Spain until the corination of Edward VI
What did John Guy argue about economics in this period?
‘England was economically healthier, more expansive and more optimistic under the Tudors than at any time since the Roman occupation’
What points can be made to support Guy’s view?
- Population grew significantly - From 1520s, agricultural prices rose significantly - Debasement cause a momentary boom
What points can be made against Guy’s views?
- Bad harvests led to higher food prices, causing problems for more urban workers - Real wages declined - Assessments indicated a high level of urban poverty - There is evidence of growing unemployment in rural labour - People were made homeless because of engrossing
What is engrossing?
The joining together of two or more farms to make a single agricultural unit; It could be seen as improving efficiency and output at the cost of rendering families homeless
What was debasement?
The reduction in the silver content of coins (replaced with base metals). As a result of this, shopkeepers put up their prices, which resulted in an increase in the rate of inflation
What document highlighted the impact of enclosure?
Thomas More’s ‘Utopia’
What did Wolsey do in response to enclosure?
He launched an inquiry into enclosure and found 188 defendants who had enclosed illegally
Where was enclosure most commonly found?
In the Midlands
What was the main underlying cause of economic distress?
The increase in the population, as it put a considerable strain on food
What was their a plentiful supply of at this time?
Cheap labour
Who benefited from the population increase?
Landowners and wealthier Farmers
What did John Guy argue about agricultural improvement?
‘Agricultural improvement promoted economic growth at the cost of of peasant distress; increased production generated prosperity for landlords and impoverishment for wage-earners’
What did society become in this time?
More polarised, which undermined traditional ideas of good lordship and social responsibility
What happened as a result of this change of society?
‘the rich became richer and the poor became poorer’
