Henry VIII 1509-1536 Flashcards
What was health like in Henry VIIIs reign?
There were four bad harvests in a row leading up to his reign, 1500-3, death rate massively outstripped birth rate, his accession coincided with the outbreak of the Sweating Sickness (form of influenza)
How did the position of the nobles change during Henry VIII’s reign? 3 points
Only remaining super nobles were Percys in Northumberland and Staffords in Buckingham, extinction rate of nobles was 42% in 1509 but replacement rate was only 17%, only 8 new peers, number of major peers fell 16 to 10
How did the position of the gentry change during Henry VIII’s reign?
Rural gentry controlled land of peers and rented this land to peasants. This group was overpopulated which led to pressure on land
How did the population of London change in the early 1500s?
By 1500 the population was 60,000 due to immigration. The population would have otherwise declined due to the high death rate
Give 3 points about towns in Henry VIII’s reign
Towns acted as a magnet for all the people forced off land by population pressure/increased number of livestock which had caused agrarian change, towns attracted a greater variety of trades than villages, towns had bakers/butchers/joiners but villages produced goods in cottage industries.
What was migration like when Henry VIII came into power?
Stood at 10%. Mainly from North and West to South and East
Identify 4 key dates in 1509
21st April death of Henry VII, 23rd April Henry VIII proclaimed King, 11th June Henry VII marries Catherine of Aragon, 24th June coronation of Henry and Catherine
What legacy did Henry VII leave?
Left around £300,000, unpopular mechanisms for extracting money, peaceful foreign policy, conciliar form of government (decisions made through a council)
How did Henry VIII prepare for the role of King? 6 points
He came to the throne two months before his 18th birthday so seven years had passed since Arthur’s death. He learnt about humanism, studied languages/history/astronomy/arithmetic, learnt several instruments and could sing, learnt horse riding and tennis, followed the code of chivalry
How was Henry VIII viewed by the public?
Positively because he was well educated, had courage/charm/humour, was chivalrous
How did Henry VIII deal with Empson and Dudley?
They tried to conceal the news of Henry VII’s death so Henry VIII sent them to the power, Council Learned in the Law was abolished, bonds imposed by Henry VII to control the nobility were cancelled
How was Henry VIII seen as a hands-off King?
He had no experience of public affairs or government and found the writing and reading of state papers tedious. Yet he would suddenly intervene in thje business of government and contradict actions which had already been taken. He lacked his father’s work ethic and preferred courtly activities
What was canon law?
Law of the church did not allow marriage to the wife of a dead brother and the pope’s approval was required for such a marriage to take place (aka between Henry VIII and Catherine)
What did Henry VIII swear to do on his accession?
To attack France. His role model was Henry V who brought under control half of France
How were Henry and Arthur’s childhood different?
Henry grew up in a predominantly female household whereas Prince Arthur was bought up away from his siblings and the Royal Court to become a little prince in a heavily male household
Why did Henry marry so many times?
He believed love and marriage were the same thing as a result of his feminine upbringing
Why was it a bad decision to bring Arthur up in the Marches?
The English political elite did not know him whereas Henry had been kept at court which gave him a presence on the political stage from a young age
When and why is Prince Arthur sent to Ludlow?
To continue his education as king-in-waiting in 1493
When is Henry VIII invested as the Duke of York (Knighthood of the Bath) in London?
11th October 1494 to prove Warbeck was a false claimant
Who does Starkey say was the person who ended the Wars of the Roses?
Henry VIII because he was very close with his mother so saw himself as a Yorkist
When was the Reformation brought about in England?
Henry VIIIs divorce from his first wife Catherine of Aragon. Great surviving Yorkist families, other than the Greys, became impassioned supporters of Catholic piety
What does Starkey say about Henry at the start of his reign compared with the 1530s?
Two different people but the thing which stays the same is his nicest trait: his attitude towards women
When did Henry VIII take over his dead brother’s place as Prince of Wales?
23rd February 1504
How was Henry’s decision to marry Catherine of Aragon a chivalrous action?
She was an obviously virtuous young woman who had for seven years been used by Henry VII as a pawn in his complex diplomatic manoeuvrings, after the death of Arthur Henry VII had refused to return her to her parents with her dowry as he should have done or marry her to his second son as he had periodically promised to. Catherine had won widespread admiration by the dignified way in which she dealt with her adversity
Describe Henry VIII’s appearance in 7 points
Very handsome, tall, large framed, well proportioned, very muscular, carried himself well, paid great attention to the clothes he wore
Identify Henry VIII’s 7 interests
Loved competitive physical activity such as hunting on horseback (a race between a group of companions to reach the quarry first), tennis, jousting (charging on heavily armored horses attempting to unseat an opponent with a lance) started doing it at the start of his reign and he continued for 25 years, more interested in the romantic side of love making than physical as he had fewer mistresses and fewer illegitimate children (probably 2) than most male rulers of his time, ate and drank enormous quantities regularly and gluttony was typical of rich people at the time, competent musician, passable scholar
Describe Henry’s intellectual abilities in 5 points
Those wishing to intigrate themselves with Henry were almost certain of success if they said he was clever, he extended favour to men of outstanding ability (Wolsey, More, Cromwell), lacked formal educational training, able to appreciate strengths and spot weaknesses of an argument before him, whenever he was hoodwinked by his advisors (Wolsey, Anne Boleyn) this was due to his emotions and facts being perverted
How was Henry a conformist? 6 points
He retained most attitudes of his sex/class/age so believed women were inferior to men, this belief was only suspended for a brief period during his relationship with Anne Boleyn because she refused to be treated as a second class citizen because of her gender, he was angry at Catherine of Aragon for refusing to be put aside and celebrated her death in 1536, his daughter Mary refused to accept the annulment of her parents’ marriage, felt affection for Jane Seymour because she fully accepted her husband’s views about the inferiority of women, Catherine Parr survived because she declared that she wished to follow all her husband’s instructions
What did Henry think about the social hierarchy?
He accepted that God ordered the society so it was a sin for anyone to challenge the place she or he had been assigned therefore he behaved ruthlessly towards any groups or individuals who dared to endanger the prevailing order of things
What did Henry think about life and work?
Time on earth was merely a brief interlude in the soul’s eternal life, servants were those who worked whereas masters devoted their time to activities that better befitted their status
Describe Henry’s beliefs about God
Never doubted the existence of or nature of the Christian God, believed his position as King empowered him to make special deals with God
What did Henry VIII believe about his role in life? 4 points
He was to be a true knight according to the code of the chivalry. The important aspects of this code were the need for men to perform valiant deeds (jousting or mock battles), ‘courtly love’ which meant a true knight was expected to perform valiantly on the field of battle to lay worthwhile trophies at the feet of his fair lady (he hurried back to Catherine of Aragon to present her with symbols of the victorious campaign in France in 1513), concept of honour was important because kings should be obeyed and never under the influence of others
Why was Henry viewed as fundamentally strong by some historians? 6 points
He possessed sufficient determination, self assurance, intellectual ability, political shrewdness to ensure that the conduct of public life in his kingdom and in its dealings with other states followed the lines that he determined. He frequently allowed his leading servants eg Wolsey considerable scrope for independent action but he always retained control, he exploited factions during his reign
Why was Henry viewed as basically weak by some historians? 6 points
Indecisive, in the latter part of his reign severe pain sapped his resolve, uncertain of which policy to pursue, lacking in confidence, cruel, Wolsey seen as an alternative King
What influence did Wolsey have on Henry VIII?
Able to persuade the king almost at will to accept policies and only had to change course on rare occasions when his nominal master intervened briefly but forcefully
What influence did Thomas Cromwell have on Henry VIII?
Persuaded Henry to break with Rome to secure the end of his marriage with Catherine of Aragon and to dispense with Anne Boleyn and to plunder the monasteries to solve his financial problems and to institute a reign of terror in which anybody who voiced opposition to the royal policy could be charged with treason and executed
How did Henry VIII seem unimportant to his grandmother Margaret of Beaufort?
She got his birth date wrong when writing it down and had to correct it
What did the Spanish ambassador say about Henry’s relationship with his father and grandmother?
Henry was in complete subjection to them and was quiet around them
What was Henry’s relationship with Dutch scholar Erasmus?
Erasmus visited his court with Thomas More when Henry was 9 and Thomas More presented him with latin verses so Erasmus later writes latin poetry for Henry about the new Tudor dynasty -this led to a blossoming friendship between Erasmus and Henry
When was the Treaty or Etaples renewed with France and what did this involve?
1510, work of Henry VIIIs fathers councillors, Henry had already issued a translation of the life of his role model Henry V and planned to attack France. Henry sent the Archbishop of York, Christopher Bainbrudge to persuade Pope Julius II to enter an alliance against the French
What two events of Henry’s foreign policy occurred in 1511?
He made a deal with Spain to attack France, joined the holy league against France (alongside the pope, the venititians, the Swiss and Ferdinand of Aragon)
When was Henry VIIIs first invasion of France and what did it involve?
- Henry sent an army of 10,000 men to France under the Marquis of Dorset, Henry was persuaded to do so by Ferdinand of Aragon who used Henry’s expedition of a diversionary tactic to conquer Navarre (an area of land on the French Spanish border) but Henry achieves nothing: his army contracted dysentery, got drunk and mutinied
When was Henry’s second invasion of France and what did this involve?
16th August 1513 The Battle of the Spurs. Henry personally led an army of 25,000 men into Northern France and they seized control of unimpressive towns Therouanne and Tournai. Wolsey provides the English army for the siege of Therouanne and was congratulated by the pope. His cavalry chased after french Calvary who dug in their spurs to speed their escape. Henry’s men captured notable prisoners although Henry was not present, Henry believed he had won glory but it was Maximilian who gained strategically
When and what was the Battle of Flodden?
9th September 1913. James IV crosses border into England with 30,000-40,000 men so an English army of 26,000 respond led by veteran soldier Earl of Surrey, James killed along with much of the Scottish nobility so throne passed to James V an infant. Catherine of Aragon regent as Henry was in France, she organised armies to defeat Scottish
Why was the battle of flodden similar to the Lovell rebellion?
Both took place while the king was away
What event of Henry’s foreign policy happened in August 1514? 7 points
After first French war Maximilian made peace with Louis XII of France so Henry follows suit, Henry received pension arrears due to his claim to the throne, Henry’s sister Mary marries Louis XII (wolseys arrangement), Henry had to liquidate fathers assets to pay for first French was, discontent due to taxation in Yorkshire, Henry loses French pension, tournai sold back to the French for less than the English had to pay to repairs the towns defences
When did Louis XII die?
1515, succeeded by Francis I
When did Ferdinand of Aragon die?
1516, succeeded by Charles I
When was the Treaty of London and what did this involve? 5 points
October 1518, brought peace between England and France. At same time Pope Leo X sent representative to England to mobilise a campaign against Ottomans (Turkish empire), Wolsey turns this idea into an international peace treaty between Francis I of France, HRE Maximilian, Charles I of Spain, the pope. Treaty did not last due to the death of Maximilian and Charles I of Spain’s succession as HRE Charles V (Francis and Charles fought each other over his election), Wolsey made papal legate (popes representative in England so he had control over the church and the king)
When was the Field of Cloth of Gold and what did this involve? 4 points
June 1520, Henry met with Francis I here close to Calais to build upon their friendship, magnificent two week long meeting which cost Henry a years revenue, Wolsey organised 6000 people to travel with and serve the king, France and England still at war two years later
Identify three reasons why Henry VIII’s foreign policy can be seen as a failure
Failed to achieve his primary goal which was to recover the French empire which had been conquered by Henry V, his high hopes were naive given how tiny is resources were compared to those of France, his foreign policy was often incoherent which allowed wily operators such as Ferdinand and Maximilian to manipulate him
What is the traditional view of Henry’s foreign policy?
It achieved few concrete gains and seemed to have been conducted for his allies benefit
Why did the Battle of the Spurs benefit Maximilian?
Therouanne was a French fortress which threatened Maximilian’s Burgundian territories, Tournai was a French enclave in burgundy
How did Ferdinand and Maximilian respond when Henry’s foreign policy benefited them?
Signed separate treaties with France
How was Henry VIII allied with emperor Charles V against Francis I?
In the 1523-25 campaign Henry did not capture Boulogne which would have strengthened England’s hold in the Calais pale but decided to conduct his campaign against Paris which served Charles Vs interests. Henry’s army cane within reach of Laris and get was forced to turn back because of Charles failures elsewhere
How was Charles unhelpful in his alliance with Henry? 3 ways
Refused to send troops to help Henry and rejected Henry’s plans to dismember France following Charles’ great victory over Francis I at Pavia in 1525, refused to honour his treaty promise to marry Henry’s daughter Mary
How expensive were Henry VIIIs wars? 6 points
Spent £960,000 in 1511-13, spent £430,000 in 1523-5, his ordinary income was only about £100,000 a year, Francis I and Charles V annual incomes totalled £350,000 and £560,000 respectively, Henry’s campaigns of 1511-14 were largely funded from the wealth his father had left, warfare mostly financed from extraordinary revenue (taxes and loans which had to be paid back out of ordinary revenue)
What was England’s tax base like?
Small because it’s population was small (2.5 million compared with Frances 14 million)
When and what was the Amicable Grant?
Wolsey tried to raise this in March 1525 which led to outright refusal in Kent and Norfolk and a full scale eevikt in Suffolk when 10,000 men converged on Lavenham, this grant was dropped in May 1525 and Wolseys further attempts to bypass parliament further ruined his relations with this key body
When did Wolsey fail to be elected pope?
Jan 1522, he only reluctantly agreed to be a candidate due to Henry encouraging him
What did Wolsey do in March 1522?
His military survey seeks to discover England’s military and taxable resources which leads to forced loans in 1522 and 1523
When was the Secret Treaty of Bruges signed and what did it involve?
August 1521 between Henry and Charles V, Henry promised to declare war on France if fighting continued until November 1521 and to mount a joint campaign with Charles V before May 1523, Henry’s daughter was to marry Charles V
When were the five treaties collectively known as the Treaty of More signed and what 4 terms did it include?
30th August 1525 between Henry and French Interim government whilst Francis was still held prisoner, Wolsey negotiates that Henry would give up territorial claims in France in return for a French pension of £20,000 a year, France settled what was owed to Henry’s sister Mary the dowager queen of France, England agreed to secure the release of Francis from Charles, France agreed not to allow Albany to return to Scotland
Why did Henry assert his claim to the throne?
To justify his objective of occupying French territory and as a lever to extract concessions from the French. He was flexible regarding his claim to the French throne and used it as a negotiating device
How did Henry use his claim to the French throne as a negotiating device?
He agreed to forego further warfare in return for French hell in securing the annulment of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon so he could remarry and have a son
When was Francis I’s victory over the Swiss at Marignano and what did this result in?
1515 September, diplomatic isolation for Henry which resulted from the series of treaties Francis signed
When was the Anglo French amity created?
After the Peace of London of 1518 and the restoration of one of England’s bargaining counters, Tournai
Who did Wolsey persuade to agree to a non aggression pact under the aegis of Henry VIII?
Emperor Maximilian, Spain, Scotland, Venice, Leo X, host of others . For a while Henry VIII was arbiter of Europe and London was its foremost capital
What happened after the imperial elections of 1519? 4 points
Charles V combined his power as Holy Roman Emperor with his ruler ship of Spain and Burgundy, dynastic rivalry with Francis I enhanced, strengthened England’s bargaining position by creating a situation where both rivals wanted England as an ally, Wolsey negotiated with Charles V at Bruges (kept silent to French) whilst the Field of Cloth of Gold meeting was going on (aimed to put pressure on Charles V to get a better deal in a treaty)
How were English interests closely tied to those of Charles V?
Henry was married to Catherine of Aragon and England’s economy was reliant upon the Flanders cloth market
In what year did Charles V’s unpaid army sack Rome to ally with France?
1527
When was Boulogne captured?
1544 campaign, it fell easily into English hands in September. Henry had wanted to make Boulogne the main target of England’s military activities 1512-14 and 1522-23 but Wolsey persuaded him the importance of cooperating with allies
Why was 1525 a significant date in Henry’s foreign policy?
Marked the start of a reversal of alliances because Charles V has sailed to support Henry’s search for an annulment from pope clement VII to his marriage to Catherine of Aragon so he decided to turn his back on the Habsburg alliance, after 1526 Wolsey hoped to use French ambitions to destroy Habsburg power in itself and either break Charles V power over the pope or cajole the emperor into negotiations
When did Henry become sponsor of the anti Habsburg league of Cognac?
1526 May
When did a reluctant Henry find himself at war with Charles V and how did he act?
1528, the only accessible Habsburg target was England’s trading partner burgundy, Wolsey wanted to avoid military action so determined a trade embargo on low counties in January 1528 as the means to force Charles into negotiations
Why was England so reliant on the Flanders cloth markets in the 1520s?
The third worst harvest of the sixteenth century in 1527, widespread unemployment resulting from the cessation of the cloth trade, this led to widespread trouble in the south east and south west and east Anglia between March and may
When and what was the Ladies Peace of Cambrai?
Achieved in august 1529 thanks to the diplomacy of Margaret of Austria regent of the Netherlands and Louise of Savoy Francis I’s mother. Between Francis I and Charles V
When and how did Wolsey fall from power?
Charged with praemunire and surrenders the Great Seal in October 1529, arrested on charge of treason in November 1530 and died in Leicester en route from York to the tower
How did Louis XII respond to the pope’s attempts to create a league against him?
Summoned a General Council of the Church to Pisa, this challenged the power of the Pope but helped Henry unite his council behind war.
What was the Auld Alliance?
Alliance between France and Scotland
What was Henry’s aims with Scotland?
It was a low priority in his foreign policy as he did not intend to dominate it but to neutralise it
Who did Louis XII marry and when?
Henry’s younger sister Mary in October 1914
What were Henrys biggest successes of his foreign policy?
By the end of 1914 he had one sister as Queen of France and the other as Queen regent of Scotland, Louis XII forced to acknowledge Henry’s claim to the throne
By which point was Henry’s treasury almost empty?
End of 1514 but his territorial gains were insignificant
How was Wolsey rewarded by Henry?
Rewarded with bishoprics of Tournai and Lincoln in 1513 and the next year Wolsey gave up Lincoln in return for the archbishopric of York and in 1515 Henry appointed him Lord Chancellor
How powerful was Wolsey with regards to foreign policy?
His advice and organisational skills were important but no crucial decision could be made by him alone: all papers concerning war and diplomacy had Henry’s hand on
What is Professor Scarisbrick’s view of Wolsey’s policy?
Genuine attempt to bring about peace, the fact England was at war twice during Wolsey’s time of political ascendancy reveals that his policy failed
When was the friendship between France and England ended?
Louis XII death on the last day of 1514, Mary Tudor returned to England as wife of Charles Brandon Duke of Suffolk
When and what was the battle of Marignano?
September 1515, Francis I defeated the renowned Swiss infantry and won Milan
What did Wolsey do after the battle of Marignano?
Speedily concluded an Anglo-Spanish treaty and dispatched Richard Pace as an envoy to hire Swiss troops who would fight alongside Maximilian and free Milan
What consequence did the death of Ferdinand have? 3 points
January 1516. Archduke Charles of Burgundy succeded him and did not renew the treaty with England but signed instead the Treaty of Noyon (1516) with French king. Maximilian concluded the Peace of Cambrai in 1517 with France. France demonstrated hostility to Henry so Wolsey had to repair relations with her in 1517
How did Francis I demonstrate hostility towards Henry?
Allowed the Duke of Albany, heir presumtpive to the Scottish throne, to leave France and stir up trouble in Scotland
What was the Pope’s role in 1521?
Frightened by the westward advance of the Ottoman Turks, he despatched legates to the Empire, Spain, France and England to arrange for a five year truce among Christian princes and a crusade against the Turks. Cardinal Campeggio was legate for England
What happened with Wolsey and Campeggio?
Campeggio denied admission to england until Leo made Wolsey co-legate with him. Wolsey continually upstaged Campeggio to take over the role of chief legate, wolsey transformed the papal truce into an international treaty under his presidency
When was the second French War and what role did Charles V play?
May 1522-1525. Charles was focused on situation in Northern Italy at the time (winning the battle of La Biocca) so provided no support for English troops who were making ineffective raids into Picardy
What did the Duke of Bourbon do during the Second French War?
One of the greatest French noblemen took up arms against Francis so the possibility of a triple attack (Spain England and the Duke) opened up, Duke of Suffolk marched to Paris with 11,000 men on 24th August 1523 but the 5000 troops Netherlands were meant to send never came and neither did the 20,000 under Charles and Bourbon failed to gather support
When and what was the battle of Pavia?
24th February 1525. 10,000 French soldiers killed and Francis I was trapped under his horse and captured in northern Italy by imperial forces of the HRE. Henry tried to capitalise on the crushing defeat of the French by suggesting to Charles they launch a joint invasion in northern France in order to gain territory but Charles refused to partition France
What events of Henry VIIIs foreign policy occurred in 1527?
Henry decided he wanted to separate from Catherine of Aragon, in may Charles V sacked Rome and took Pope Clement II prisoner which meant there was little possibility of persuading the pope to grant Henry an annulment (Catherine of Aragon was Charles V aunt)
When do England and France declare war on Charles V? 4 points
Under the April 1527 treaty of Westminster Henry and Francis agreed to join forces to attack Charles, under the August 1527 treaty of Amiens England agreed to pay for the French attack, Wolsey suspended trade in the Netherlands before war to use it as a tool to force Charles to agree to the annulment but there were protests by cloth workers in England so a truce was made with the Netherlands in June 1528, Charles V victorious at battle of Landriano in June 1529 due to disease among Francis troops
When did the pope make peace with Charles?
In the treaty of Barcelona then Francis followed suit with the Peace of Cambria in August 1529
What did Henry need to break away from the Catholic Church and achieve his annulment?
Allies against catholic Spain and France. Many princes in north Germany (part of HRE) had turned to Lutheranism to maintain their independence from Catholic HRE Charles V by creating the Schmalkaldic league in 1531 and they were looking for Protestant allies and Cromwell (Henry’s minister) made attempts to ally with the league but nothing was achieved with regard to an ally against Spain and France
What did Francis and Henry so in 1532?
Met at Calais where Henry tried to shore up his position by making a fragile alliance with France who was already in a weak position so they could put little pressure on Charles V
What happened when Earl of Kildare was dismissed?
In 1534 there was a major rebellion led by Thomas Fitzgerald Earl of Ossory which was difficult and expensive to suppress
When and what was the Truce of Nice?
Between Charles and France ended hostilities and left Turin in French hands with no significant changes in the map of Italy, fear that Spain and France may invade England with support from the pope
When did Gaelic Lords invade the Pale and what happened afterward?
1539 and two of these were Con O’Neill and Manus O’Donnell, government eventually regained control and tried to pacify Ireland by establishing it as a separate kingdom in 1541, some Gaelic Lords received peerage titles and Irish were entitled to the same legal protection as their English counterparts, government lacked resources to follow through on the reforms so there was no residual Irish loyalty to the crown
When and why did Henry VIII declare war on Scotland?
1542 because Henry VIII had arranged to meet Scottish king James V at York and James did not turn up, Scots were heavily defeated in the battle of Solway Moss
What happened after the battle of Solway Moss? 4 points
James V died and left one week old Mary as his heir whom Henry VIII wanted to marry to his five year old son Edward, they were formally betrothed under the treaty of Greenwich July 1543, the Earl of Arran (Scottish regent) deserted the English cause and Scottish parliament refused to give formal consent to the treaty in December 1543 because the treaty did not mention the renunciation of the Franco Scottish alliance, Henry ordered the Earl of Hertford to carry out a raid on Edinburgh and Leith and St Andrews
When was the third French war and what did it involve? 4 points
1542-6. In 1543 an Anglo imperial alliance made and agreed to attack France within two years but this was delayed until 1544 due to events in Scotland, in June 1544 Henry sailed to Calais with 48,000 men and split his forces instead of marching on Paris with Charles like the plan, Norfolk unsuccessfully attacked Montreuil, Henry besieged Boulogne
How did abandoning Charles in 1544 backfire on Henry? 3 points
Charles made a settlement with Francis at Crepy meaning France was now free to turn its desires on England and sent French troops to Scotland, the English were initially defeated by the Scottish in February 1545 at the battle of Ancrum Moor and when the French landed on the Isle of Wight Henry’s flagship the Mary Rose sank in the river solent, French failed to recapture Boulogne in 1545 and invasion of northern England never materialised
When was the Treaty of Ardres signed and what did this involve?
June 1546, Henry able to hold onto Boulogne, France agreed to pay all outstanding pensions
How did Henry pay for the third French war?
financed by the dissolution of the monasteries, debasement of the coinage, large scale borrowing on the Antwerp money market
How much did each of the French wars cost?
1488-92 Henry VII war against France cost £108,000, 1512 Henry VIII’s First French War cost £892,000, 1422-25 Henry VIII’s Second French War cost £401,000, 1542-6 Henry’s Third French War cost £2,144,765
How did Henry’s French pension change over time? 7 points
Pension started in 1475 when Louis XI agreed to pay Edward IV £10,000, in 1492 Charles VIII agreed to pay Henry VII £10,000 per annum, 1512 pension stopped due to French War, 1518 pension increased and again in 1525, Henry VIII to receive £21,316 in 1527, pension arrears £205,379 in 1542, the total paid by the French during Henry’s reign was £730,379
Why was England irrelevant to most central issues of Europe such as Milan?
Its geographical position at the edge of Europe
Describe the Mediterranean during Henry VIII’s reign
Dominated by the Ottomans’ allies, the Corsair pirates, led by Barbarossa. The movement of goods, troops and bullion was risky that worried Charles V’s territories of Spain and Italy. Ottoman advance was also extending over North Africa so Charles led campaigns against them here
Describe the dispute over Milan
Milan was technically the property of the Sforza family but its strategic and dynastic importance led Charles and Francis to fight over it
Describe Naples during Henry VIII’s reign
Taken by Spain in 1504, claimed by the French who invaded in 1494, 1512, 1524 and 1528
Describe Hungary during Henry VIII’s reign
At the end of the sixteenth century the Jagiellons of Hungary were the most powerful and important royal family in Europe in terms of land control and agriculture. Charles V’s brother Ferdinand of Austria married into this family and in 1526 inherited vast areas of Hungary bringing them into greater conflict with the Ottomans whose empire was right next to Hungary
Which people became dukes under Henry VII’s reign?
In 1509 the Duke of Buckingham was the only hereditary duke in the kingdom but by 1514 Thomas Howard was restored to the Duchy of Norfolk and Charles Brandon has been created Duke of Suffolk
Describe Wolseys background
Son of a butcher born in 1472/3 who was educated at Magdalen college in Oxford and became Bursar of the College and Master of the school attached to the college, he gained advancement through the Marquis of Dorset, he became chaplain to Henry VII in 1507 and chaplain and almoner to Henry VIII in 1509
Describe Wolseys rise to power
1509 appointed by Henry VIII as almoner (came with an automatic seat on royal council), In 1514 he became Bishop of Tournai and of Lincoln and Archbishop of York, in September 1515 he became a cardinal and was appointed Lord Chancellor, he was appointed as Papal Légate on a temporary basis in 1518 and for life in 1524 which gave him control over the English church and primacy over the Archbishop of Canterbury
Why did people view Wolsey negatively?
He held lots of positions in the church for the revenues that they would bring him, he did not visit his diocese of York until his fall from power in 1528, A F Pollard in 1929 wrote that he subordinated English foreign policy to the interests of the papacy due to his ambition to become pope
What role did Wolsey have in the courts?
After his appointment as Lord Chancellor in December 1515 he presided over the court of chancery and sat as a judge in the court of the star chamber several times a week. Over 9000 cases brought to courts during Wolseys time in power (about 120 each year to the court of the Star chamber compared with 12 during Henry VIIs reign)
Why was England’s geographical position crucial in the rivalry between Francis I and Charles V?
The natural route for Charles from Spain to the Low Countries was by sea through the English Channel so it would be easy for Henry to assist or disrupt his communications
When was Tournai returned to France and what did Henry get in return?
4th October 1518 (2 days after treaty of London) for 600,000 crowns and that Mary Henry’s daughter should marry the son of the French king (the Dauphin) and Wolsey received a pension of 12,000 livres
What did Henry do on 26th May 1520?
Met briefly with Charles on his way from Spain to the low counties but the meeting was brief because Henry was about to embark for the field of the cloth of gold (no mans land between Calais and French territory), he conferred again with Charles after parting with Francis on 23rd June
What did the meeting at Calais involve?
On 2nd August Wolsey sailed for Calais to obtain a peace settlement between France and the emperor but on 14th August Wolsey travelled to Bruges to negotiate the treaty of Bruges with Charles which committed England to war with France if fighting continued (Francis had captured Navarre from Spain in summer 1521) and Mary Tudor was to marry Charles instead of the French kings son
What was Wolseys role in the courts?
After being appointed as Lord Chancellor in December 1515 he presided over the court of chancery and he sat as a judge in the court of star chamber several times a week, 9000 cases were brought before the two courts including 120 cases a year brought to the star chamber compared with only a dozen in the reign of Henry VII, overflow courts had to be established
Why was the friendship in 1532 between Francis and Henry short lived?
Francis was looking for a new ally to take up arms against the emperor but also trying to win over the pope at the same time. In October 1533 he met the pope at marseilles where the marriage was arranged between Francis son Henry the Duke of Orleans and the Popes nieve Catherine de’Medici. None of this benefitted Henry Tudor but he gained the services of Teo French cardinals presenting his case in Rome and Francis managed to get the papal sentence of excommunication delayed
Why did negotiations between Henry and the Schmalkaldic league fail?
The league agreed there would be no political agreement without a religious agreement aswell but Henry could not commit to Protestantism of Luther
Why was Henry in a good position in 1536? 4 reasons
Death of duke of Milan in 1535 set off argument between Charles and Francis over who should succeed him, death of Catherine of Aragon in jan removed source of tension between henry and Charles, Cromwell able to inform English envoys in France that they could now afford to be less conciliatory towards France, after the execution of Anne Boleyn there seemed a chance of reconciliation between Charles and Henry
What marriage plans did Henry try to make after the death of Jane Seymour?
She died in 1537 and for a year Henry put in bids for a wife to both the French and Habsburg camps. However the widowed daughter of the Duke of Guise married James V of Scotland. Charles niece Christina the 16 year old widow of the Duke of Milan had doubts about Henry’s marital records and there were difficulties in the conditions he demanded
What was the Pope doing in 1538?
Preparing to publish the Bull of excommunication against Henry and sent Cardinal Reginald Pole on a mission to encourage Charles and Francis to take up arms against England. Cardinal Beaton was sent to Scotland on the same errand
How did Henry VIII prepare for an imminent invasion in 1539? 5 points
In early February he ordered a surgery of the kingdoms defences, refurbished/built fortifications, financed by the dissolution of the monasteries and using materials from them, he built up the navy from seven ships that his father had to over forty and put it on a war footing and held a muster of the county militias, in may 16,500 soldiers marched through London and paraded before the king at a review at his palace of St James
What happened when Henry tried for a second time to make negotiations with the Schmalkaldic league?
In January 1539 he sent ambassadors there hoping to dissuade them from coming to an agreement with the emperor and asking for a delegation to come to England for further talks who arrived but talks came to nothing, the act of six articles in June showed that any religious settlement was possible
Describe the Cleves marriage negotiations
January 1539 negotiations opened with Duke of Cleves about a marriage with his daughter Anne. The duke was in dispute with the emperor, had recently broken with Rome but had not adopted Lutheranism despite being connected by marriage to German Protestants. Agreement signed in October and marriage took place January 1540 despite Henry’s personal aversion because Francis and Charles were very close at this time
How were Francis and Charles close in 1539/40?
Francis gave permission to Charles to cross France on his way to deal with a revolt in the Netherlands and the two rulers met in Paris on the same day Henry met Anne for the first time. In February 1540 the duke of Norfolk went on an embassy to France and Henry was reassured the two rulers were growing apart again so he could safely set aside his new queen without jeopardising his security
When and what were the treaties of Greenwich?
July 1543 called for peace between England and Scotland after the battle of Solway moss when James V died leaving Mary (six weeks old) on the throne and arranged for the future marriage of Mary and Edward
What did the Earl of Hertford do in Scotland?
In may 1544 led an expedition into Scotland which resulted in the burning of Edinburgh and the devastation of much of the lowlands, led another raid of the same kind in late 1545 and in the following year Cardinal Beaton (a leading member of the French party in Scotland) was murdered
What did AF Pollard day about Wolseys foreign policy?
His change in attitudes towards other European powers coincided with a change in the policy of the papal Curia due to his desire for a cardinals hat, a nomination as legatus a lagetere and his ambition to become pope
How does Guy disagree with AF Pollards interpretation of Wolsey?
Wolsey neither visited Italy to build up English votes there or ingratiate himself with the papal Curia nor showed particular deference to the pope. Charles V was the one who planted the idea in his head of becoming pope and Henry VIII encouraged this
When did Charles V release Francis I from captivity and on what terms?
February 1526 on the condition he abandoned his claims to Italy and burgundy and surrendered the Dauphin and his second son as hostages pending fulfilment of the treaty of Madrid
How did Francis I break the treaty of Madrid?
Assembled a league of Italian states to oppose the imperial domination of Italy (league of cognac) which was cemented by the treaty of Cognac in May 1526, Wolsey saw this as an inexpensive investment to revive his role of honest broker
Describe peace at Amiens
Eternal peace declared between France and England in April 1527, in July Wolsey headed a lavish embassy to France which met Francis I at Amiens where a fresh set of peace treaties were signed. Princess Mary pledges to marry duke of Orleans and it was agreed that war would be declared on Charles if he declined final requests for peace
Which month in 1528 did Henry find himself at war with Charles and what impact did this have?
January. England’s wool and cloth exports were disrupted despite the truce Wolsey successfully negotiated with the Netherlands. Rioting cloth workers in 1528, failed harvest in 1527 saw wheat prices at their highest level for 60 years
What were Wolseys main aims in foreign policy? 5 points
The French wars provided the opportunity for him to establish himself as the kings minister because he was made responsible for supplying and equipping Henry’s armies, he conducted foreign policy in the interests of the papacy due to his desire to become pope (arguably this idea was just put into his head by Charles V and encouraged by Henry VIII), motivated by the desire to be a peacemaker because war was the quickest way to lose money but also because he was inspired by humanist ideals, aimed to carry out Henry’s wishes to the best of his ability, could expect to receive honours from the pope if he proved his utility to the Holy See
Why is the idea that Wolsey conducted foreign policy in the interests of the papacy no longer accepted?
In 1518 he hijacked the popes plans for a pan European peace and turned them into the treaty of London and ignored the popes plans for a crusade against the Turks, Wolsey did not build up a party of supporters in the Chris in Rome
Why did Henry decide to side with Charles in 1523? 3 reasons
Henry had failed to produce a male heir but a marriage between Charles (most powerful ruler in Europe) and his daughter would ensure stability in the event of Mary’s accession, papacy has made an anti French alliance with Charles and Henry was under pressure from the pope and Wolsey (who wanted his temporary légate ship confirmed for permanency) to do the same, alliance offered Henry opportunity for territorial gains in France
What was Wolseys role in administration?
He took over Henry VIIs role as supervisor of royal administration and used his personal household officials to conduct government business just as Henry VII had used his chamber servants, certain informal posts introduced by Henry VII were given official status by act of parliament
How did Wolsey respond to factional struggles?
Twice proposed reform of the royal household (men who personally attended the king daily while Wolsey laboured in Westminster) in 1519 and 1526. The 1526 reforms called the eltham ordinances and in the wake of the amicable grant and sought to remove members of the noble faction who were opposed to Wolseys pro French foreign policy, reduced the Gentlemen of the Bedchamber from 12 to 6
Why is Wolsey thought to have ‘destroyed’ Duke of Buckingham? 4 points
Henry VIII ordered Wolsey to spy on Buckingham and four other nobles whose loyalty Henry doubted , Wolsey found evidence Buckingham was adopting the trappings of monarchy such as royal badges on his personal effects and took an armed force with him to collect rents despite royal instructions, a servant said Buckingham prophesied Henry’s death and his succession, the court that condemned Buckingham was presided over by duke of Norfolk not Wolsey
What was the only major reform in local government under Wolsey?
Reorganisation of the councils in the north of England and the marches which were nominally headed by duke of Richmond and Princess Mary respectively, staffed mostly by Wolseys placemen and their task was to keep an eye on the aristocracy in these lawless regions unwilling to accept instructions from London
Why did Wolsey have bad relations with parliament during his ministry?
Wolsey attacked the anticlericalism of the house of commons in 1515 parliament and the 1523 meeting he used bullying tactics to overcome opposition to taxation
When and what was the subsidy?
1513, a new form of taxation which took account of the amount people could actually pay and penetrated further down the social scale than was customary. The 1523 parliament made the highest grant of taxation of any parliament in early 16th century although it was to be paid in instalments over four years
How much did Wolsey raise in direct taxes and clerical taxes?
1513-27 raised £413,000 in direct taxes and 1515-29 raised £240,000 in clerical taxes by using his control of the church
How did Wolsey solve the problem of legal cases taking too long to resolve and being too expensive?
Increased the role of prerogative courts which used ‘equity’ based on common sense and what seemed fair. By the Middle Ages the kings councillors sat as judges (chief among them the Lord chancellor), Wolsey used the new law of the star chamber and encouraged use of the court of chancery and established the court of requests
Why and how did Wolsey attack those who enclosed common land or converted arable land to pasture or parkland?
He believed enclosures were responsible for rural unemployment and depopulation, large number of beggars, food shortages and inflation. He punished over 200 landowners through the court of chancery but in the early 1520s he was forced to drop his attack on enclosures in an attempt to appease parliament
Who did Wolsey try to improve conditions for the poor?
In 1518 fixed poultry prices and investigated high cost of other meats in London, used the star chamber to attack traders who took excessive profits, during the bad harvest of 1527 he ordered JPs to buy up surplus grain and sell it cheap to the needy
How did Wolsey do little to reform the church from within? 3 points
Planned a thorough reform of the bishoprics in England and Ireland but never instituted his proposals, exhorted the monastic clergy to embark on a programme of reform in 1519 but didn’t enforce the issue, refused to let others initiate reforms for fear of losing influence
Why did Henry VIII remind Wolsey and Archbishop Wareham that the interests of the crown were more important than those of the church?
They lobbied for the dismissal of the anti clerical parliament in 1515
What positive action did Wolsey take regarding the church?
1524-27 suppressed some thirty decayed monasteries to found a grammar school in Ipswich and a college in oxford, sponsored lectures in classics and theology at Oxford by leading humanists of the day such as Juan Luis Vives, 1528 took steps to limit benefit of clergy
How did Wolsey annoy Henry in 1538?
Refused to confirm the appointment of a woman who king supported to the post of abbess of Wilton
How did Wolsey use his power to make money out of the clergy? 4 points
Episcopal sees and abbacies were left vacant so Wolsey could enjoy their revenues, bishops and abbots could not take up their posts unless confirmed by Wolsey for a price, probate revoked from bishop courts to Wolseys legatine court so he could take the legal fees, every benefice in the land subject to an entry fee payable to Wolsey and he maintained a large number of officials who enforced his financial rights
Why was Henry’s marriage to Catherine of Aragon a failure?
No surviving sons produced, Anglo imperial friendship destroyed
How was Wolsey put in a difficult position by Henry’s decision to marry Anne Boleyn? 3 reasons
French princess would be more suitable due to restoration of relations with France in 1526, Anne’s family related to duke of Norfolk and the 3rd duke of Norfolk was a rival opposed to Wolseys pro French foreign policy, Anne Boleyn favoured the ideas of the continental reformers and regarded Wolseys rule of the church with contempt
Why did Henry’s divorce case fail? 3 reasons
He and Catherine had a daughter, Henry overlooked the fact he wanted to marry a woman with whose sister he was known to have had an affair, Henry dismissed the popes right to grant dispensations in cases like his and ignored Wolseys advice to argue that the pope did indeed have the power to dispense but the wrong dispensation had been granted because of Catherine’s virginity
How was Catherine of Aragon in a weak position by end of 1526? 5 points
Catherine was several years older than Henry and her physical appearance had been affected by many unsuccessful pregnancies, she was introverted and devout due to the pressure of having a son, only had a daughter Mary who was not seen as a viable successor to the throne and the Pole family may be persuaded to remember distant claims on the crown of the Tudor’s appeared shaky, Catherine became a diplomatic liability to a king who was turning away from the old alliance with spain, Henry fell in love with Anne Boleyn (arrived at court 1st March 1522) who was intelligent and young and refused to sleep with Henry unless they were married
