hell Flashcards
1
Q
Closed circulatory system
A
use a pumping heart to move blood through vessels
-ex: annelida (earthworms(
2
Q
2 chambered hearts?
A
Ex: fish
-Atrium and Ventricle
3
Q
Flow of blood to the Right Atrium?
A
1) Deoxygenated blood is returned from:
- Upper Superior Vena Cava
- Lower Inferior Vena Cava
2) Blood passes through the right AV valve or tricuspid valve to the right ventricle
4
Q
AV valve
A
Or tricuspid valve
-attached to papillary muscles which contract to close the AV wolves and prevent back flow of blood
R atrium and R ventircule
5
Q
Flow of Blood:
Right Ventricle
A
Pumps deoxygenated blood through the pulmonary semilunar valve to the pulmonary artery
-blood enters pulmonary circulation
6
Q
What occurs when the ventricle contracts? relaxes?
A
Contracts:
The AV valve closes
Pulmonary semilunar valve opens and deoxygenated blood is released to pulmonary artery
Relaxes?
AV valve opens and refills ventricle
pulmonary semilunar valve closes to prevent backflow
7
Q
Blood Flow: Left Atrium
A
oxygenated blood is returned from the lungs via the pulmonary Vein
-blood passes through the Bicuspid valve or mitral valve to the left ventricle
8
Q
What is the most muscular chamber of the heart?
A
left ventricle
9
Q
Blood flow: left ventricle
A
pumps oxygenated blood into the aorta and systemic circulation
10
Q
Pulmonary Circulation
A
moves deoxygenated blood from heart to the lungs and back in order for it to become oxygenated
11
Q
Systemic circulation
A
moves oxygenated blood from he heart through the body
12
Q
Cardiomyocytes
A
heart muscle cells
-contain automaticity-self-excitable and able to initiate an action potential without an external nerve
13
Q
SA Node
A
pace maker of the heart
- located in the upper wall of the right atrium
- initiates the cardiac cycle
- greatest automaticity
sends signal to contract both atria to send blood to ventricles
-also signal to the AV node to initiate contraction too
14
Q
AV Node
A
located in the lower wall of the right atrium
- fx: adds a brief delay between the contraction of the atria and the contraction fo the ventricles
- sends a signal to the bundle of His
15
Q
Bundle of His
A
located in the inter ventricular septum between the ventricles
-carris signal to the purkinje fibers which contract the ventricles
16
Q
Heart Sound:
Lub vs Dub
A
Lub:(AV valves snapping shut)
- atria are relaxed
- ventricles are contracting
Dub: (semilunar valve shutting)
- atria are contracting
- ventricles relaxed
17
Q
When does Systole Occur? Diastole?
A
Systole between Lub dub sounds
Diastole after dub before next Lub
18
Q
P, Q, R, S wave?
A
P=atria depolarization
Q-depolarization through interventiruclar septum
R=ventricular depolarizatoin
S=completion of ventricular depolarization
19
Q
Heart Rate (HR)
A
how fast the heart beats per min
20
Q
Tachycardia
A
greater than 100 beats per min
21
Q
Bradycardia
A
less than 60 beats per min
22
Q
Stroke Volume (SV)
A
the volume of blood pumped from the heart each beat
Diastolic Volume-Systolic Volume
23
Q
Cardiac Output (CO)
A
volume of blood being pumper per min
CO=SV x HR
24
Q
Total Peripheral Resistance (TPR)
A
total amount of resistance that blood phases when flowing through the vasculature of the body
- Vasoconstriction- increases TPR
- Vasodilation-decreases TPR
25
Systolic Blood pressure
highest pressure in your arteries when your ventricles contract
26
Diastolic blood pressure
pressure in your arteries while the heart is relaxing between beats (Ventricles are filling UP_
27
Mean Arterial Pressure (MAP)
average arterial pressure during one complete cardiac cycle
MAP= COxTPR
28
Plasma
makes up most of blood volume 55%
| -contains water, proteins, nutrients etc.
29
leukocytes
white blood cells
| -immune cells-defeat against infection
30
What is the most common white blood cell?
neutrophil
31
Thrombocytes
Platelets
- cell fragments that do not have a nucleus
- responsible for clotting
- relese factors that help convert fibrinogen into fibrin; creates net to stop bleeds
32
Megakaryocytes
large bone marrow cells-are the precursor to platelets
33
Deficieny in Vit K
increased bled
| -clotting factors are synthesized with Vitamin K
34
Erythrocytes
RBC
- responsible for transporting oxygen attached to hemoglobin
- Mature RBC-anucleate-no nucleus
35
Type A, B, AB, and O? what type of ANtigen
A=A
B=B
AB=A and B antigens
O=neither antigen
36
Rhesus factor (Rh)
surface protein found in blood
| Rh(+) cannot donate to someone who is Rh-
37
Universal Acceptor for Blood?
AB+
38
Fetal Circulation
- fetus gets oxygen and nutrients from the placenta through the umbilical cord
- Oxygenated blood in the R atrium goes directly to the L atrium through a hole in the heart called Foramen oval
- placenta provide an exchange of gas and nutrients across a barrier; no mixing of mother and placenta blood
39
Right Lung vs Left Lung
Left lung
- two lobes
- smaller
Right Lung:
- 3 lobes
- bigger
40
pleura covers the:
covers the:
- lungs
- dual layered membrane composed of the outer layer-parieatel layer and the inner layer=visceral layer
41
Inspiration/inhalation
involves the
-contraction of the diaphragm (pulls lungs downwards)
and the external intercostal muscles (expand the rib cage)
Contractions cause pressure of intrapleural space to decrease and the volume of the lungs to increase
=brings air into the lungs
42
Expiration/exhalation?
involves the:
- relaxation of the diaphragm and the external intercostal muscles
- brings lungs back up and close the rib cage through ELASTiC RECOILD
43
Pathway of air through the body? start with nose
1) Nasal cavity contain:
- goblet cells-secrete mucus
- ciliated epithelial cells-move mucus and trapped debris
2) Pharynx
- at the beginning of the throat
- epiglotis diverts air and food into the larynx and the esophagus
3) Larynx
- receives air and contains the voice box
4) Trachea
- contains reinforced cartilage and ciliated epithelial cells to filter air
5) R and L Bronchi
6) Bronchioles
7) Alveoli
44
Upper respiratory tract refers to?
nasal cavity, pharynx, and larynx
45
Lower respiratory tract refers to?
trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and alveoli
46
Surfactant
substance that prevents the lungs from collapsing by reducing surface tension
47
Hemoglobin
Tetramer
- contains heme cofactor in each of its four subunits
- Heme cofactor-contains organic molecules that contain Iron atoms which bind oxygen
- can carry up to 4 oxygen molecules
- Oxygen dissociation curve=sigmoidal
48
Oxyhemoglobin
HBO2
| -transports most of the oxygen traveling in the blood
49
Cooperativity
the binding of one oxygen molecules to hemoglobin makes it easier for others to bind due to changes in the shape of the hemoglobin
-allows for efficient unloading of oxygen in body tissues
50
Carboxyl hemoglobin
HbCO
- produced when carbon monoxide outcompetes oxygen for hemoglobin binding
- carbon monoxide poisoning occurs bc oxygen can no longer be transported efficienty
51
Myoglobin
Single peptide
- one heme cofactor
- much higher affinity for oxygen than hemoglobin initially
- found within cardiac and skeletal muscle cells
- Hyperbolic oxygen dissociation curve-does not undergo cooperatively
52
Hemoglobin:
| R vs L shift of Oxygen Dissociation curve
Right shift=lowered affinity for oxygen in hemoglobin
1) decreased pH
2) High Pp of CO2
3) Increase in 2,3-BPG concentration
4) Increased Body Temp
Left Shift
1) Increased pH
2) Low Pp of CO2
3) Fetal Hemoglobin
4) Decreased body temp
53
How does the blood travel to the lungs?
Bulk Flow
54
Medulla Oblongata
located in the brain
- controls the diaphragm to regulate respiratory rate
- central chemoreceptors and peripheral chemoreceptors signal to the medulla
55
Respiratory acidosis
Hypoventilation
- lowered blood pH occurs due to inadequate breathing
- hypoventilation
56
respiratory alkalosis
Hyperventilation
| increased blood pH due to rapid breathing
57
Lymphocytes
WBC
- found mainly in lymphatic organs (T cells, B cells, Natural killeer cells)
- originate from bone marrow
58
Where do B and T cells mature?
T cells mature in the thymus
| B cells mature in the bone marrow
59
Mast Cells
type of leukocyte responsible for first part of inflammatory response
-RALLY SIGNALing
Injury Occurs- release histamine which dilates blood vessel; which increases blood flow and makes vessels more permeable to let immune cells into the tissues
60
5 signs of inflamation
SLIPR
```
Swelling-
Loss of functin
Increase heat
Pain
Redness
```
61
What are the 5 main types of Lymphocytes
Never Let Monkeys Eat Bannanas
- Neutrophils
- Lyphocytes
- Macrophages
- Eosinophils
- Basophils
62
Neutrophils
phagocytes in innate immunity and make up over Hal of all leukocytes
63
B and T cells
apart of adaptive immunity and must be activate
64
Natural Killer cells
part of innate immunity
- attack vital infected cells and cancer cells
- use perforin (creates holes) and granzyme (stimulate apoptosis) to lyse cells
65
Macrophage/Monocytes
phagocytes in innate immunity
- monocytes are immature form in blood vessel
- macrophages mature form and can act as antigen present cells to activate adaptive immunity
66
Eosinophils
part of innate immunity
- have granules that can be released to kill pathogens
- espiecally paraistes
67
Basophills
least numerous leukocyte
| -contain granules with histamine (Vasodilation) and heparin (an anticoagulation to prevent blood clotting)
68
MHC Class I
surface molecule present on all nucleated cells
69
MHC Class II
surface molecule present on antigen presenting cells
- dendritic cells
- macrophages
used to present foreign antigens to activate immune cells
70
B cells function
control antibody-mediated immunity (humoral immunity)
-release and production of antibodies
Also act as antigen presenting cells
71
Clonal selection model
describes the developing of one type of B-cell receptor for every B cell
-throug clonal expansion the B cells divide into either plasma cells (antibody secreting cells) or memory B cell to be activated later for another attack
72
T cells function
control cell-mediated immunity by acting on cells not antibodies
-must bind to antigens to be activated
73
Passive immunity
immunity someone receives from receiving antibodies from someone else that already has that immunity
74
Active Immuhnity
immunity a person gains from being infected once already by a pathogen
75
vaccination
introduce the antigen or pathogen in a activated state to stimulate activate immunity
-CALLED ARTICIAL IMMUNITY
induces memory B and T cell formation
76
Neuron
most basic unit of the nervous system
Composed of 3 parts:
- Soma (cell body)
- Dendrites (extensions that receive signals)
- axons-send signals out
77
Central nervous system is composed of
composed of the brain and spinal cord
78
Peripheral nervous system is composed of
composed of nerves branching of CNS
79
Cerrebelum responsible for?
coordination of movement
80
Temporal Lobe responsible for?
Speech/language
| -hearing
81
What is the brainstem composed of?
Midbrain-relays sense to other parts the Brian
Pons-relays messages from cerebellum to forebrain
Medulla Oblonagata-heart and breathing rate
82
Thalamus
relay center of the brain
83
Limbic system is composed of?
| responsible for?
hypothalamus
hippocampus
amygdala
emotion, memory, learning, and motivation
84
Sensory (afferent) neurons
send signal to the spinal cord and brain through dorsal roots
85
Motor (efferent neurons)
send a signals back out both e muscle through ventral roots
86
Meninges
- function
- cmposed of 3 layers?
protect the CNS
Outermost:
- Dura
- Arachnoid
- pia
87
What is the peripheral nervous system divided into?
Somatic Nervous System
-volunatry motor action and sensory input
Autonomic nervous system
-involuntary
88
ACETYLcholine for sympathetic nervous system and parasympathetic nervous system
Sympathetic nervous system
-uses for preganglionic nerves and norepinephrine/epinephrine for postganglionic nerves
Parasympathetic nervous system
-uses for both pregangliionic and postgangliionic nerves
89
Outer ear
takes in sound waves
90
Tympanic membrane of ear
transfer the sound form the outer ear to the middle ear
91
What is the middle ear composed of?
Three bony Ossicles:
- Malleus
- Incus
- Stapes
92
Ossicles of middle ear
transfer vibrations through the middle ear and amplify the signal
93
Stapes of middle ear
transfers the vibrations from the middle to the inter ear via the OVAL window
94
Cochlea
TRANSDUCITON
| fluid and hairs to convert mechanical signal to neuronal signal
95
Round window
| ear
membrane convert opening
- between middle and inner ear
- helps the fluid expand and vibrate
96
semicircular canals
gives information about person's movement
| -DIZZINESS
97
Cornea
transparent
- focuses light
- protects the eye
98
Iris
controls the size of the pupil
99
Pupil
controls how much light enters
100
Lens
focuses images on retina
101
Retina
back of the eye and has photoreceptors
| -rods and cones
102
Optic nerve
bundle of axons that transmit visual information to the brain
103
optic disc
blind spot of the eye
| -where the optic nerve passes through to reach the brain
104
Sclera
protective connective tissue that surrounds the eye
| -white part of the eye
105
Nose
Contains olfactory receptor cells that sense mocluels and send signal to the Olfactory cortex
-perception of smell
106
What are the three types of muscle?
- which are striated
- which are voluntary/involuntary
Smooth
- involuntary
- not striated
Cardiac
- involuntary
- striated
Skeletal
- voluntary
- striated
107
striated muscles mean
contain sarcomeres
108
Cardiac muscle
contain intercalated discs which are made of:
- desmosomes (hold cells together)
- gap junctions connect cytoplasm of cells to allow in exchange
109
Bone remodeling
constant back and forth between ossification (bone formation) and resorption (bone loss)
110
Osteoprogenitors
immature precursor cells that differentiate into osteoblasts
111
Osteoblasts
build bond
| -matute into osteocytes after getting trapped inside the bone matrix
112
Osteocytes
live in lacunae in osteons to maintain bone
113
osteoclasts
eat and resorb bone, bringing calcium back into the blood
| -derived from monocytes
114
Parathyroid hormone function
increases blood calcium levels by stimulating osteoclasts and depressing osteoblasts
-secreted by the parathyroid gland
115
Vit D
increases blood calcium levels
-activated by parathyroid hormone
Provides negative feedback on PTH hormone
(parathyroid hormone)
116
Calcitonin
decreases the blood calcium levels by depressing osteoclasts, allowing osteoblasts to build bone without competition
-secreted by thyroid gland
117
Osteoid
organic component of the bond
| -contains the protein colagen
118
Intramembranous ossification
make flat bones
119
Endochondral ossification
make long bones
120
Tendons
connect muscle to bone
121
Ligaments
connect bone to bone
122
Periosteium
membrane that covers cortical bone with an outer fibrous layer and an inner/cambium layer
123
Endosteum
membrane located between cortical and cancellous bone
124
Cartilage
avascular (lack blood)
| -not innervated
125
Chondroblasts
built cartilage by secreting collagen and elastin
126
Joints
vascularized and innervated
| -found between bone
127
What hormones are produced by the adrenal cortex
glucocorticoids, mineralcoritcoids and androgenic steroids
128
what hormones are produce by the reproductive orgns
progesterone, testosterone, estrogen
129
Steroid hormones
progesterone, testosterone, estrogen
| glucocorticoids, mineralcorticoids, and androgenic steroids
130
Hypothalamus
coordinates the body internal enviroment
| -maintains homeostasis
131
Vasopressin/ Anti-diuretic hormone/ADH
- function
- stored/released
decreases urination by increasing water retention
-targets nephrons
Stored and released by posterior pituitary
132
Oxytocin
- function
- stored/released
causes uterine contraction during labor and release the milk during breast feeding
Stored and released by posterior pituitary
133
GnRH
causes release of luteinizing hormone and follicle stimulating hormone
stimulate anterior pituitary and released by hypothalamus
134
TRH
causes release of thyroid stimulate hormone (TSH)
| stimulate anterior pituitary and released by hypothalamus
135
CRH
corticotropin releasing hormone
-causes release of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH
stimulate anterior pituitary and released by hypothalamus
136
GRH
growth hormone releasing hormone
-causes release of growth hormone
stimulate anterior pituitary and released by hypothalamus
137
Tropic hormones
```
produced by anterior pituitary
FSH
LH
ACTH
TSH
```
138
follicle stimulating hormones-FSH
follicle stimulating hormones
-follicle growth (females)
sperm maturation (males) in the gonads
139
Luteinizing hormone
luteinizing hormone
-stimulates ovulation, corpus luteum formation (females
Testosterone production in malles in the gonads
140
adrenocorticotropic hormone-ACTH
stimulates release of glucocorticoids from the adrenal gland to fight stress
141
Thyroid stimulating hormone TSH
stimulates T3 qnd T4 production by the thyroid gland to increase metabolism
142
Direct hormones
released from anterior pituitary
target organs directly for effects
Prolactin
Growth Hormone
143
Prolactin
stimulates mammary gland development and increase milk production after child birth
144
Growth Hormone
Somatotropin
| -stimluates body cells to grow and divide
145
What does the Pineal Gland produce? function?
Melatonin
| -regulates circadian rhythm
146
Triiodothyronine (T3)
produced by thyroid glands
released in response to TSH
-increases metabolism in the body
-negative feedback effect on TSH secretion
147
Thyroxine (T4)
produced by thyroid glands
released in response to TSH
-increases metabolism in the body
-negative feedback effect on TSH secretion
HAs one more iodine and get converted into T3 upon cell uptake
-less potent than t3 but more stable in blood
148
Hypothyroidism
under secretion of T3 and T4
| -reduced levels metabolism in the body
149
Hyperthyroidism
Oversecretion of the T3 and T4
| -increased levels of metabolism in the body
150
Alpha Cells
secrete glucagon
151
Beta cells
secrete insulin
152
Delta cells
secrete somatostatin
| -inhibits growth hormone, and secretion of glucagon and insulin
153
Positive feedback of hormone
the change causes the amplification of itself
| -exponential growth
154
Negative feedback of hormone
change causes inhibition of itself
| -Promoting stablityy
155
Kidneys consist of
cortex outer
medulla
pelvis
156
where does filtration occur?
renal corpuscle which consist of the glomerulus and Bowmans capsule
157
What is a nephron?
| -four main processes that occur in the nephron?
filtration
- reabsorption
- secretion
- excretion
158
Angiotensin II effects onbody
stimulates additional aldosterone release
- Na+ reabsorption
- potent vasoconstrictor
- makes individual thirst
159
Layers of the skin
Epidermis (outermost)
Dermis
hypodermis
160
3 germ layers
```
Ectooderm(outer layer)
-CNS (brain and spinal cord) and PNS
Mesoderm
-Muscles
Endooderm (inner layer)
- PLTT (pancreas, liver, thyroid, and parathyroid, thymus)
```
161
Stem cells
undifferentiated cells with potential to become many types of cells (potency)
162
Totipotent (stem cell)
stem cells can become any cell
| zygote, blastomeres
163
Pluripotent
stem cells can become any of the 3 germ layers
164
Multipotent
Stem cells can only differentiate to a few types of a specific tissue type (hematopoietic stem cell which goes to many blood cells)
165
Homologous structures
may or may not perform say function
-but have common ancestor
Forearm of bird and human Ex:
166
Analogous structures
same function
| -do not have a common ancestor
167
Vestigial structures
serve no purpose
| -homologous to functional structures in other organisms
168
Natural Selection Theory
Darwin
- the gradual, non-random process where allele frequency change as result of environmental interaction
- survival of the fittest occurs as people with greater fitness have greatest success
- LEADS TO the evolution of the population not individuals
169
Stabilizing selection
mainstream/average is favored
| -Standard Bell curve
170
Directional selection
one extreme is favored
171
Disruptive selection
rare traits favored
| -mainstream/average is not
172
Hardy-weinberg equilibrium
| -formula and conditions
p+q=1
p=Frequency of dominant allele
q=frequency of recessive allele
p2=2pq+ q2=1
p2=frequency of homozygous domanant
2pq=frequency of heterozygous Gg
q2=frequency of homozygous recessive
```
Condtions:
Large population-minimizes genetic drift
-Random mating
-no mutation
-no natural selection
-no migration (gene flow)-0
```
173
Genetic drift
allele frequencies change by chance
| -larger effects on small populations
174
Bottleneck effect
smaller gene pool some alleles may be lost
| disaster killing majority of population
175
Founder effect
some individuals migrate away from the population
176
Habitat Isolation
occupying different habitats
| -prevents fertilization from occurring between species
177
Temporal Isolation
Reproducing at different time/seasons
| -prevents fertilization from occurring between species
178
Behavioral isolation
Different courtship rituals
| -prevents fertilization from occurring between species
179
Mechanical isolation
male and female genetalia are not compatible
| -prevents fertilization from occurring between species
180
Gamete isolation
gametes do not recognize/fertilize each other
| -prevents fertilization from occurring between species
181
Divergent evolution
diverge from common ancestor
182
Convergent evolution (homoplasy)
unrelated species adapt to similar environments becoming more alike
183
Parallel evolution
diverge from common ancestor but undergo similar changes
184
coevolution
two species impart selelctive pressure on each other
185
intraspecific competition
occurs between members of the same species
186
Expoloitation competition
is indirect
| -occurs when resources are depleted
187
Apparent competition
when one predator preys on two specieis
188
Mutualism
Both organisms benefit
189
Commensalism
one organism benefits and the other is unaffected
190
Parasitism
one organism benefits at the others expense
191
Herbivore
Plant eater
192
Carnivore
Meat eater
193
Omnivore
plant and meat eater
194
IgG
Antibody
- most abundant antibody in circulation
- only antibody that can cross the placenta to give the fetus PASSIVE Immunity
195
Operant Conditioning
learning to associate a behavior with a reward (increases behavior) or punishment (decreases behavior)
196
Positive punishment
add something bad to decrease behavior
197
Negative punishment
take away something good to decrease behavior
198
Positive reinforcement
add something good to increase behavior
199
Negative reinforcement
take away something bad to increase a behavior
200
Agnostic behaviors
Competing for food, territory, or mates
THREATs aggression and submission
