hell Flashcards
Closed circulatory system
use a pumping heart to move blood through vessels
-ex: annelida (earthworms(
2 chambered hearts?
Ex: fish
-Atrium and Ventricle
Flow of blood to the Right Atrium?
1) Deoxygenated blood is returned from:
- Upper Superior Vena Cava
- Lower Inferior Vena Cava
2) Blood passes through the right AV valve or tricuspid valve to the right ventricle
AV valve
Or tricuspid valve
-attached to papillary muscles which contract to close the AV wolves and prevent back flow of blood
R atrium and R ventircule
Flow of Blood:
Right Ventricle
Pumps deoxygenated blood through the pulmonary semilunar valve to the pulmonary artery
-blood enters pulmonary circulation
What occurs when the ventricle contracts? relaxes?
Contracts:
The AV valve closes
Pulmonary semilunar valve opens and deoxygenated blood is released to pulmonary artery
Relaxes?
AV valve opens and refills ventricle
pulmonary semilunar valve closes to prevent backflow
Blood Flow: Left Atrium
oxygenated blood is returned from the lungs via the pulmonary Vein
-blood passes through the Bicuspid valve or mitral valve to the left ventricle
What is the most muscular chamber of the heart?
left ventricle
Blood flow: left ventricle
pumps oxygenated blood into the aorta and systemic circulation
Pulmonary Circulation
moves deoxygenated blood from heart to the lungs and back in order for it to become oxygenated
Systemic circulation
moves oxygenated blood from he heart through the body
Cardiomyocytes
heart muscle cells
-contain automaticity-self-excitable and able to initiate an action potential without an external nerve
SA Node
pace maker of the heart
- located in the upper wall of the right atrium
- initiates the cardiac cycle
- greatest automaticity
sends signal to contract both atria to send blood to ventricles
-also signal to the AV node to initiate contraction too
AV Node
located in the lower wall of the right atrium
- fx: adds a brief delay between the contraction of the atria and the contraction fo the ventricles
- sends a signal to the bundle of His
Bundle of His
located in the inter ventricular septum between the ventricles
-carris signal to the purkinje fibers which contract the ventricles
Heart Sound:
Lub vs Dub
Lub:(AV valves snapping shut)
- atria are relaxed
- ventricles are contracting
Dub: (semilunar valve shutting)
- atria are contracting
- ventricles relaxed
When does Systole Occur? Diastole?
Systole between Lub dub sounds
Diastole after dub before next Lub
P, Q, R, S wave?
P=atria depolarization
Q-depolarization through interventiruclar septum
R=ventricular depolarizatoin
S=completion of ventricular depolarization
Heart Rate (HR)
how fast the heart beats per min
Tachycardia
greater than 100 beats per min
Bradycardia
less than 60 beats per min
Stroke Volume (SV)
the volume of blood pumped from the heart each beat
Diastolic Volume-Systolic Volume
Cardiac Output (CO)
volume of blood being pumper per min
CO=SV x HR
Total Peripheral Resistance (TPR)
total amount of resistance that blood phases when flowing through the vasculature of the body
- Vasoconstriction- increases TPR
- Vasodilation-decreases TPR
Systolic Blood pressure
highest pressure in your arteries when your ventricles contract
Diastolic blood pressure
pressure in your arteries while the heart is relaxing between beats (Ventricles are filling UP_
Mean Arterial Pressure (MAP)
average arterial pressure during one complete cardiac cycle
MAP= COxTPR
Plasma
makes up most of blood volume 55%
-contains water, proteins, nutrients etc.
leukocytes
white blood cells
-immune cells-defeat against infection
What is the most common white blood cell?
neutrophil
Thrombocytes
Platelets
- cell fragments that do not have a nucleus
- responsible for clotting
- relese factors that help convert fibrinogen into fibrin; creates net to stop bleeds
Megakaryocytes
large bone marrow cells-are the precursor to platelets
Deficieny in Vit K
increased bled
-clotting factors are synthesized with Vitamin K
Erythrocytes
RBC
- responsible for transporting oxygen attached to hemoglobin
- Mature RBC-anucleate-no nucleus
Type A, B, AB, and O? what type of ANtigen
A=A
B=B
AB=A and B antigens
O=neither antigen
Rhesus factor (Rh)
surface protein found in blood
Rh(+) cannot donate to someone who is Rh-
Universal Acceptor for Blood?
AB+
Fetal Circulation
- fetus gets oxygen and nutrients from the placenta through the umbilical cord
- Oxygenated blood in the R atrium goes directly to the L atrium through a hole in the heart called Foramen oval
- placenta provide an exchange of gas and nutrients across a barrier; no mixing of mother and placenta blood
Right Lung vs Left Lung
Left lung
- two lobes
- smaller
Right Lung:
- 3 lobes
- bigger
pleura covers the:
covers the:
- lungs
- dual layered membrane composed of the outer layer-parieatel layer and the inner layer=visceral layer
Inspiration/inhalation
involves the
-contraction of the diaphragm (pulls lungs downwards)
and the external intercostal muscles (expand the rib cage)
Contractions cause pressure of intrapleural space to decrease and the volume of the lungs to increase
=brings air into the lungs
Expiration/exhalation?
involves the:
- relaxation of the diaphragm and the external intercostal muscles
- brings lungs back up and close the rib cage through ELASTiC RECOILD
Pathway of air through the body? start with nose
1) Nasal cavity contain:
- goblet cells-secrete mucus
- ciliated epithelial cells-move mucus and trapped debris
2) Pharynx
- at the beginning of the throat
- epiglotis diverts air and food into the larynx and the esophagus
3) Larynx
- receives air and contains the voice box
4) Trachea
- contains reinforced cartilage and ciliated epithelial cells to filter air
5) R and L Bronchi
6) Bronchioles
7) Alveoli
Upper respiratory tract refers to?
nasal cavity, pharynx, and larynx
Lower respiratory tract refers to?
trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and alveoli
Surfactant
substance that prevents the lungs from collapsing by reducing surface tension
Hemoglobin
Tetramer
- contains heme cofactor in each of its four subunits
- Heme cofactor-contains organic molecules that contain Iron atoms which bind oxygen
- can carry up to 4 oxygen molecules
- Oxygen dissociation curve=sigmoidal
Oxyhemoglobin
HBO2
-transports most of the oxygen traveling in the blood
Cooperativity
the binding of one oxygen molecules to hemoglobin makes it easier for others to bind due to changes in the shape of the hemoglobin
-allows for efficient unloading of oxygen in body tissues
Carboxyl hemoglobin
HbCO
- produced when carbon monoxide outcompetes oxygen for hemoglobin binding
- carbon monoxide poisoning occurs bc oxygen can no longer be transported efficienty
Myoglobin
Single peptide
- one heme cofactor
- much higher affinity for oxygen than hemoglobin initially
- found within cardiac and skeletal muscle cells
- Hyperbolic oxygen dissociation curve-does not undergo cooperatively
Hemoglobin:
R vs L shift of Oxygen Dissociation curve
Right shift=lowered affinity for oxygen in hemoglobin
1) decreased pH
2) High Pp of CO2
3) Increase in 2,3-BPG concentration
4) Increased Body Temp
Left Shift
1) Increased pH
2) Low Pp of CO2
3) Fetal Hemoglobin
4) Decreased body temp
How does the blood travel to the lungs?
Bulk Flow
Medulla Oblongata
located in the brain
- controls the diaphragm to regulate respiratory rate
- central chemoreceptors and peripheral chemoreceptors signal to the medulla
Respiratory acidosis
Hypoventilation
- lowered blood pH occurs due to inadequate breathing
- hypoventilation
respiratory alkalosis
Hyperventilation
increased blood pH due to rapid breathing
Lymphocytes
WBC
- found mainly in lymphatic organs (T cells, B cells, Natural killeer cells)
- originate from bone marrow
Where do B and T cells mature?
T cells mature in the thymus
B cells mature in the bone marrow
Mast Cells
type of leukocyte responsible for first part of inflammatory response
-RALLY SIGNALing
Injury Occurs- release histamine which dilates blood vessel; which increases blood flow and makes vessels more permeable to let immune cells into the tissues
5 signs of inflamation
SLIPR
Swelling- Loss of functin Increase heat Pain Redness
What are the 5 main types of Lymphocytes
Never Let Monkeys Eat Bannanas
- Neutrophils
- Lyphocytes
- Macrophages
- Eosinophils
- Basophils
Neutrophils
phagocytes in innate immunity and make up over Hal of all leukocytes
B and T cells
apart of adaptive immunity and must be activate
Natural Killer cells
part of innate immunity
- attack vital infected cells and cancer cells
- use perforin (creates holes) and granzyme (stimulate apoptosis) to lyse cells
Macrophage/Monocytes
phagocytes in innate immunity
- monocytes are immature form in blood vessel
- macrophages mature form and can act as antigen present cells to activate adaptive immunity
Eosinophils
part of innate immunity
- have granules that can be released to kill pathogens
- espiecally paraistes
Basophills
least numerous leukocyte
-contain granules with histamine (Vasodilation) and heparin (an anticoagulation to prevent blood clotting)
MHC Class I
surface molecule present on all nucleated cells
MHC Class II
surface molecule present on antigen presenting cells
- dendritic cells
- macrophages
used to present foreign antigens to activate immune cells
B cells function
control antibody-mediated immunity (humoral immunity)
-release and production of antibodies
Also act as antigen presenting cells
Clonal selection model
describes the developing of one type of B-cell receptor for every B cell
-throug clonal expansion the B cells divide into either plasma cells (antibody secreting cells) or memory B cell to be activated later for another attack
T cells function
control cell-mediated immunity by acting on cells not antibodies
-must bind to antigens to be activated
Passive immunity
immunity someone receives from receiving antibodies from someone else that already has that immunity
Active Immuhnity
immunity a person gains from being infected once already by a pathogen
vaccination
introduce the antigen or pathogen in a activated state to stimulate activate immunity
-CALLED ARTICIAL IMMUNITY
induces memory B and T cell formation
Neuron
most basic unit of the nervous system
Composed of 3 parts:
- Soma (cell body)
- Dendrites (extensions that receive signals)
- axons-send signals out
Central nervous system is composed of
composed of the brain and spinal cord
Peripheral nervous system is composed of
composed of nerves branching of CNS
Cerrebelum responsible for?
coordination of movement
Temporal Lobe responsible for?
Speech/language
-hearing
What is the brainstem composed of?
Midbrain-relays sense to other parts the Brian
Pons-relays messages from cerebellum to forebrain
Medulla Oblonagata-heart and breathing rate
Thalamus
relay center of the brain
Limbic system is composed of?
responsible for?
hypothalamus
hippocampus
amygdala
emotion, memory, learning, and motivation
Sensory (afferent) neurons
send signal to the spinal cord and brain through dorsal roots
Motor (efferent neurons)
send a signals back out both e muscle through ventral roots
Meninges
- function
- cmposed of 3 layers?
protect the CNS
Outermost:
- Dura
- Arachnoid
- pia
What is the peripheral nervous system divided into?
Somatic Nervous System
-volunatry motor action and sensory input
Autonomic nervous system
-involuntary
ACETYLcholine for sympathetic nervous system and parasympathetic nervous system
Sympathetic nervous system
-uses for preganglionic nerves and norepinephrine/epinephrine for postganglionic nerves
Parasympathetic nervous system
-uses for both pregangliionic and postgangliionic nerves
Outer ear
takes in sound waves
Tympanic membrane of ear
transfer the sound form the outer ear to the middle ear
What is the middle ear composed of?
Three bony Ossicles:
- Malleus
- Incus
- Stapes
Ossicles of middle ear
transfer vibrations through the middle ear and amplify the signal
Stapes of middle ear
transfers the vibrations from the middle to the inter ear via the OVAL window
Cochlea
TRANSDUCITON
fluid and hairs to convert mechanical signal to neuronal signal
Round window
ear
membrane convert opening
- between middle and inner ear
- helps the fluid expand and vibrate
semicircular canals
gives information about person’s movement
-DIZZINESS
Cornea
transparent
- focuses light
- protects the eye
Iris
controls the size of the pupil
Pupil
controls how much light enters
Lens
focuses images on retina
Retina
back of the eye and has photoreceptors
-rods and cones
Optic nerve
bundle of axons that transmit visual information to the brain
optic disc
blind spot of the eye
-where the optic nerve passes through to reach the brain
Sclera
protective connective tissue that surrounds the eye
-white part of the eye
Nose
Contains olfactory receptor cells that sense mocluels and send signal to the Olfactory cortex
-perception of smell
What are the three types of muscle?
- which are striated
- which are voluntary/involuntary
Smooth
- involuntary
- not striated
Cardiac
- involuntary
- striated
Skeletal
- voluntary
- striated
striated muscles mean
contain sarcomeres
Cardiac muscle
contain intercalated discs which are made of:
- desmosomes (hold cells together)
- gap junctions connect cytoplasm of cells to allow in exchange
Bone remodeling
constant back and forth between ossification (bone formation) and resorption (bone loss)
Osteoprogenitors
immature precursor cells that differentiate into osteoblasts
Osteoblasts
build bond
-matute into osteocytes after getting trapped inside the bone matrix
Osteocytes
live in lacunae in osteons to maintain bone
osteoclasts
eat and resorb bone, bringing calcium back into the blood
-derived from monocytes
Parathyroid hormone function
increases blood calcium levels by stimulating osteoclasts and depressing osteoblasts
-secreted by the parathyroid gland
Vit D
increases blood calcium levels
-activated by parathyroid hormone
Provides negative feedback on PTH hormone
(parathyroid hormone)
Calcitonin
decreases the blood calcium levels by depressing osteoclasts, allowing osteoblasts to build bone without competition
-secreted by thyroid gland
Osteoid
organic component of the bond
-contains the protein colagen
Intramembranous ossification
make flat bones
Endochondral ossification
make long bones
Tendons
connect muscle to bone
Ligaments
connect bone to bone
Periosteium
membrane that covers cortical bone with an outer fibrous layer and an inner/cambium layer
Endosteum
membrane located between cortical and cancellous bone
Cartilage
avascular (lack blood)
-not innervated
Chondroblasts
built cartilage by secreting collagen and elastin
Joints
vascularized and innervated
-found between bone
What hormones are produced by the adrenal cortex
glucocorticoids, mineralcoritcoids and androgenic steroids
what hormones are produce by the reproductive orgns
progesterone, testosterone, estrogen
Steroid hormones
progesterone, testosterone, estrogen
glucocorticoids, mineralcorticoids, and androgenic steroids
Hypothalamus
coordinates the body internal enviroment
-maintains homeostasis
Vasopressin/ Anti-diuretic hormone/ADH
- function
- stored/released
decreases urination by increasing water retention
-targets nephrons
Stored and released by posterior pituitary
Oxytocin
- function
- stored/released
causes uterine contraction during labor and release the milk during breast feeding
Stored and released by posterior pituitary
GnRH
causes release of luteinizing hormone and follicle stimulating hormone
stimulate anterior pituitary and released by hypothalamus
TRH
causes release of thyroid stimulate hormone (TSH)
stimulate anterior pituitary and released by hypothalamus
CRH
corticotropin releasing hormone
-causes release of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH
stimulate anterior pituitary and released by hypothalamus
GRH
growth hormone releasing hormone
-causes release of growth hormone
stimulate anterior pituitary and released by hypothalamus
Tropic hormones
produced by anterior pituitary FSH LH ACTH TSH
follicle stimulating hormones-FSH
follicle stimulating hormones
-follicle growth (females)
sperm maturation (males) in the gonads
Luteinizing hormone
luteinizing hormone
-stimulates ovulation, corpus luteum formation (females
Testosterone production in malles in the gonads
adrenocorticotropic hormone-ACTH
stimulates release of glucocorticoids from the adrenal gland to fight stress
Thyroid stimulating hormone TSH
stimulates T3 qnd T4 production by the thyroid gland to increase metabolism
Direct hormones
released from anterior pituitary
target organs directly for effects
Prolactin
Growth Hormone
Prolactin
stimulates mammary gland development and increase milk production after child birth
Growth Hormone
Somatotropin
-stimluates body cells to grow and divide
What does the Pineal Gland produce? function?
Melatonin
-regulates circadian rhythm
Triiodothyronine (T3)
produced by thyroid glands
released in response to TSH
-increases metabolism in the body
-negative feedback effect on TSH secretion
Thyroxine (T4)
produced by thyroid glands
released in response to TSH
-increases metabolism in the body
-negative feedback effect on TSH secretion
HAs one more iodine and get converted into T3 upon cell uptake
-less potent than t3 but more stable in blood
Hypothyroidism
under secretion of T3 and T4
-reduced levels metabolism in the body
Hyperthyroidism
Oversecretion of the T3 and T4
-increased levels of metabolism in the body
Alpha Cells
secrete glucagon
Beta cells
secrete insulin
Delta cells
secrete somatostatin
-inhibits growth hormone, and secretion of glucagon and insulin
Positive feedback of hormone
the change causes the amplification of itself
-exponential growth
Negative feedback of hormone
change causes inhibition of itself
-Promoting stablityy
Kidneys consist of
cortex outer
medulla
pelvis
where does filtration occur?
renal corpuscle which consist of the glomerulus and Bowmans capsule
What is a nephron?
-four main processes that occur in the nephron?
filtration
- reabsorption
- secretion
- excretion
Angiotensin II effects onbody
stimulates additional aldosterone release
- Na+ reabsorption
- potent vasoconstrictor
- makes individual thirst
Layers of the skin
Epidermis (outermost)
Dermis
hypodermis
3 germ layers
Ectooderm(outer layer) -CNS (brain and spinal cord) and PNS Mesoderm -Muscles Endooderm (inner layer) - PLTT (pancreas, liver, thyroid, and parathyroid, thymus)
Stem cells
undifferentiated cells with potential to become many types of cells (potency)
Totipotent (stem cell)
stem cells can become any cell
zygote, blastomeres
Pluripotent
stem cells can become any of the 3 germ layers
Multipotent
Stem cells can only differentiate to a few types of a specific tissue type (hematopoietic stem cell which goes to many blood cells)
Homologous structures
may or may not perform say function
-but have common ancestor
Forearm of bird and human Ex:
Analogous structures
same function
-do not have a common ancestor
Vestigial structures
serve no purpose
-homologous to functional structures in other organisms
Natural Selection Theory
Darwin
- the gradual, non-random process where allele frequency change as result of environmental interaction
- survival of the fittest occurs as people with greater fitness have greatest success
- LEADS TO the evolution of the population not individuals
Stabilizing selection
mainstream/average is favored
-Standard Bell curve
Directional selection
one extreme is favored
Disruptive selection
rare traits favored
-mainstream/average is not
Hardy-weinberg equilibrium
-formula and conditions
p+q=1
p=Frequency of dominant allele
q=frequency of recessive allele
p2=2pq+ q2=1
p2=frequency of homozygous domanant
2pq=frequency of heterozygous Gg
q2=frequency of homozygous recessive
Condtions: Large population-minimizes genetic drift -Random mating -no mutation -no natural selection -no migration (gene flow)-0
Genetic drift
allele frequencies change by chance
-larger effects on small populations
Bottleneck effect
smaller gene pool some alleles may be lost
disaster killing majority of population
Founder effect
some individuals migrate away from the population
Habitat Isolation
occupying different habitats
-prevents fertilization from occurring between species
Temporal Isolation
Reproducing at different time/seasons
-prevents fertilization from occurring between species
Behavioral isolation
Different courtship rituals
-prevents fertilization from occurring between species
Mechanical isolation
male and female genetalia are not compatible
-prevents fertilization from occurring between species
Gamete isolation
gametes do not recognize/fertilize each other
-prevents fertilization from occurring between species
Divergent evolution
diverge from common ancestor
Convergent evolution (homoplasy)
unrelated species adapt to similar environments becoming more alike
Parallel evolution
diverge from common ancestor but undergo similar changes
coevolution
two species impart selelctive pressure on each other
intraspecific competition
occurs between members of the same species
Expoloitation competition
is indirect
-occurs when resources are depleted
Apparent competition
when one predator preys on two specieis
Mutualism
Both organisms benefit
Commensalism
one organism benefits and the other is unaffected
Parasitism
one organism benefits at the others expense
Herbivore
Plant eater
Carnivore
Meat eater
Omnivore
plant and meat eater
IgG
Antibody
- most abundant antibody in circulation
- only antibody that can cross the placenta to give the fetus PASSIVE Immunity
Operant Conditioning
learning to associate a behavior with a reward (increases behavior) or punishment (decreases behavior)
Positive punishment
add something bad to decrease behavior
Negative punishment
take away something good to decrease behavior
Positive reinforcement
add something good to increase behavior
Negative reinforcement
take away something bad to increase a behavior
Agnostic behaviors
Competing for food, territory, or mates
THREATs aggression and submission