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FUCK > Cell Division > Flashcards

Cell Division Flashcards

1
Q

Genome

A

all the DNA within the cell

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2
Q

Zygote

A

common ancestor of all human cells

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3
Q

Human somatic (body) cells contain how many chromosomes?

A

46 chromosomes
-23 copies of paired chromosomes

sex cells only have half the number of chromosomes a body cell would have

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4
Q

Homologous chromosome pairs

A

are the 2 different copies of the same chromosome in a diploid organism

  • one is given by the mother
  • one is given by the father
Same size (except X and Y)
carries same genes (except X and Y)
Genes in same loci (except X and Y)
can have different alleles
not held together by a centromere
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5
Q

Sister Chromatids

A

Only exist after DNA replication (100% identical)=Dyads

  • same size
  • carries same genes
  • genes in same loci
  • same alleles
  • held together by a centromere

Referred as Replicated homologous chromosomes:
-46 replicated homologous chromosomes=23 pairs of homologous chromosomes

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6
Q

Dyads

A

replicated chromosomes that look like an X

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7
Q

Centromeres

A

Link sister chromatids together to form a dyad

-also assemble kinetochores

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8
Q

Kinetochores

A

are proteins that orient themself on either side of a dyad centromere
-attach microtubules to help separate sister chromatids during karyokinesis

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9
Q

Karyokinesis

A

process where one parent nucleus divides to form two daughter nuclei

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10
Q

Cytokinesis

A

physical process of cell division

  • process that occurs after karyokinesis
  • physically separates the cytoplasm and cell membrane
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11
Q

Ploidy

A

number of chromosome sets four in a cell

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12
Q

Diploid cells

A

cells that contain two complete sets of chromosomes

Human somatic cells have a diploid number of 46 chromosomes which means each set contains 23 pairs

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13
Q

Haploid cells

A

have half the number of chromosomal sets as a somatic cell
-uniquely describes gamete cells

Human genets have a haploid number of 23 chromosomes-they contain just one chromosomal set

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14
Q

Gametes

A

Haploid cells
-contain 23 chromosomes
used by organisms during sexual reproduction

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15
Q

Germ cells

A

divide by meiosis to form gametes

  • diploid
  • 46 chromosomes
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16
Q

Cell Cycle

A

composed of two broad phases

1) Interphase
- 90% of cell cycle, where most cells are found
2) M Phase (Mitosis)
- karyokinesis occurs (division of the replicated DNA and nucleus)
- followed by cytokinesis

Go-Gap Phase 1 (G1) of interphase 
Sam- Synthesis Phase (S) of interphase 
Go-Gap Phase 2 (G2) of interphases
Make-Mitosis of the M phase
Cake- Cytokinesis of the M phase
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17
Q

Gap Phase 1 (G1): of interphase

A

cell potential grows in preparation of a future division

  • cell produces more cytoplasm, proteins, and organelles
  • assess conditions if not favorable it will enter G0 phase.
  • if conditions are favorable- proceeds to S Phase
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18
Q

Gap Phase 0 (GO) of interphase

A 
cells that will not divide after being made are found here
-go about normal function
EX:
-neuron cells will send action potential
-muscle cells will contract 
NO DIVIDING
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19
Q

Synthesis Phase of Interphase

A

where a cell will replicate its genome in preparation of an ensuing cell division
-after replication cell enters G2 phase of interphase

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20
Q

Gap Phase 2 (G2) of interphase

A

cell continues to grow and prepare for division
replicates organelles

checks for:

  • accuracy of DNA replication
  • Mitosis promoting factor (MPF)
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21
Q

What are the four main phases of Mitosis?

What does a Diploid parent nucleus produce?

A

2 genetically dental diploid daughter nuclei

Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase

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22
Q

Prophase of Mitosis (M Phase of the cell cycle)

A
  • Chromatin condenses into chromosomes and become more visible
  • nucleolus and nuclear envelope begin to disappear
  • spindle apparatus beings to form
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23
Q

Metaphase of Mitosis (M phase of the cell cycle)

A

Spindle apparatus guide chromosomes to the cell equator called the metaphase PLATE
-Dyads lined up in a single fie at the end of meta phase

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24
Q

Anaphase of Mitosis (M phase of the cell cycle)

A

Shortest step of mitosis
Kinetochore microtubules shorten to pull centromere apart
-sister chromatids now called chromosomes are pulled toward opposite poles
-Polar spindle fibers bigin to elongate the cell

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25
Q

Telophase of Mitosis (M phase of the cell cycle)

A

Chromosomes arrive at opposite poles and begin to decondense

  • nuclear envelope material surround east set of chromosomes
  • mitotic spindle breaks down
  • spindle fibers continue to push poles apart
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26
Q

Cytokinesis: animal cells

A

begin in late anaphase by formation of a cleavage furrow

-creates a contractile ring that gets together until it eventually pinches the cell in two

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27
Q

Cytokinesis: Plant cells

A

begin around telophase

  • Golgi apparatus releases vesicle and creating a cell plate
  • Cell plate transforms into the middle lamella which cements adjacent plant cells together
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28
Q

What are some mutations that cause a cell to become more cancerous?

A

mutations in protooncogenes and tumor suppressor genes

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29
Q

Binary Fission

A

how archaea, bacteria, and mitochondria/chloroplasts (organelles) reproduce

  • replicate their genome as cell division is taking place (replication of DNA and division of cell occur at the same time)
  • No spindle apparatus
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30
Q

Meiosis

A

involves same general steps as mitosis

  • Meiosis occurs twice (mitosis only occurs once)
  • produce a total of 4 haploid daughter cells from one diploid parent
2 parts:
Meiosis I-homologous chromosomes are split
-reductional division
-ploidy of each cell will be halfed
Meiosis II-sister chromatids split
-looks a lot like mitosis;
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31
Q

Prophase I

A

chromatin condenses into chromosomes

  • nucleolus disappears
  • nuclear membrane disassembles
  • paring of homologous chromosomes and crossing over occurs which creates genetic diversity
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32
Q

Genetic recombination

A

occurs when crossover event produces chromosomes that haven’t been seen in either parent
-make genetically diverse offspring

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33
Q

Metaphase I

A

-bivalents/tetrads line up on metaphase plate duet meiotic spindle apparatus

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34
Q

Anaphase I

A

separates homologous chromosomes from each other by kinetochore microtubule shortening

  • pulled toward opposite poles of the dividing cell
    • separates homologous chromosomes; sister chromatids not separated here

Will not start unless one chiasmata Is recognized

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35
Q

Telophase and Cytokinesis I

A

Telophase I
-meiotic spindle disappears as nuclear envelopes form

Cytokinesis I:
animals-formation of cleavage furrow
plant-formation of cell plate

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36
Q

Prophase II

A

chromatin condensing into chromosomes

  • nucleoli disappearing
  • nuclear envolope disintegrating
  • meiotic spindle apparatus is formed
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37
Q

Metaphase II

A

just like metaphase in mitosis

Spindle apparatus guide chromosomes to the cell equator called the metaphase PLATE

  • Dyads lined up in a single fie at the end of meta phase
  • *each cell will have a haploid number of chromosomes
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38
Q

Anaphase II

A

pull sister chromatids of each chromosome apart at the centromere

  • doubles the number of chromosomes in each cell
  • pull chromosomes to opposite poles
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39
Q

Telophase II

A

reforms a nuclear envelope around each chromosome set

  • create two new daughter nuclei
  • chromosomes will decondense back into chromatin
  • nucleoli will reappear in each nucleu
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40
Q

Cytokinesis II

A

sepearts each daughter nucleus into two new cells

  • produces findal product
  • four haploid daughter cells
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41
Q

Chromatin

A

general packaging of DNA around histone proteins

  • helps condense DNA to fit within the nucleus of the celll
  • exist in chromosomes during mitosis and meiosis
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42
Q

DNA organization

A

DNA wraps around proteins called HISTONES forming a complex called nucleosome.

each nucleosome contains 9 histones

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43
Q

Euchromatin

A
  • represents parts of your DNA that consists of “loosely-packed” nucleosomes
  • its easier for RNA polymerases to access the DNA code and transcribe our genes
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44
Q

Heterochromatin

A

represents parts of your DNA that consists of tightly packed nucleosomes
-these areas of DNA tend to be inactive in transcription

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45
Q

DNA helicase

A

seperates complementary strands at the replication fork

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46
Q

SSB

A

Single stranded binding proteins

-proteins that prevent two strands from coming together after they seperate

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47
Q

Topoisomerase (DNA gyrase)

A

relaxes the DNA double helix from the tension that opening the helix created

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48
Q

Primase

A

Provides a 3’OH group for DNA polymerase to attache nucleotides to

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49
Q

DNA polymerases

A

class of enzymes that extends DNA in the 5’ to 3’ direction

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50
Q

DNA sliding clamp

A

Helps hold DNA polymerase to the template strand

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51
Q

DNA ligase

A

Glues together separate pieces of DNA

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52
Q

Telomerase

A

Adds repetitive DNA to the ends of eukaryotic chromosomes which prevents critical information from being lost

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53
Q

Operon

A

a group of of related genes are under the control of one promotor site

Function:
-makes sure the cell conserves its resources unless the resources are required

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54
Q

Lac Operon

A

HoOperon seen in E. Coli

  • ex: inducible operon-usually inactive unless its induced to become active
  • induced when glucose is not present but lactose is

Controls 3 genes:
LacZ
LacY
LacA

genes code for proteins that are used in metabolism of lactose

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55
Q

How is the Lac operon controlled

A
  1. Lac repressor protein
    - encoded by the gene LacL-not apart of lac operon
    - constitutively expressed-gene is always being transcribed and translated
    - repressor binds to the operator, RNA polymerase will not be able to bind effectively to the DNA and lac genes will be transcribed and translated at low levels
    - IN the presence of lactose, allolactose will bind to the lac represser protein, causing a conformational change and cannot bind operator ration
  2. cAMP levels and catabolite activator protein (CAP)
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56
Q

What are the three main types of mutations?

A
  1. base substitutions (point mutations)
  2. Insertion
  3. Deletion
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57
Q

Point mutations

A

or called base substitutions
-occur when one nucleotide is replaced by a different nucleotide

3 types:

  1. Silent
    - change in the DNA code result in no change in what amino acid the codon codes for
  2. Missense mutation:
    - change in the DNA code results in the codon now coding for a different amino acid
    - conservative missense mutation-mutated amino acid has the same properties as the unmated amino acid
  3. Nonsense mutation
    - codon is mutated to a stop codon
    - protein shorter and can be detrimental to protein function
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58
Q

What happens when a histone protein is acetylated?

A

Acetylation of histones will remove their positive charge and loosen up the attraction between histones and negatively charged DNA generating euchromatin (Loose DNA)
WHICH INCREASES THE RATE of Transcription

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59
Q

Duplication mutation

A

piece of DNA is copied then reinserted into DNA

-can cause a frameshift mutation

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60
Q

Translocation mutation

A

when one sequence of nucleotides is excised and reinserted into the DNA sequence somewhere else
-can cause a frameshift mutation

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61
Q

Inversion mutation

A

type of mutation where a sequence of DNA is excised and flipped and reinserted back into the DNA

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62
Q

Mismatch Repair

A

DNA polymerase can’t catch all its mistakes

-cell marks the uncaught errors so they can be replaced with the correct sequence

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63
Q

Nucleotide excision repair

A

repair mechanism for DNA that has been damage.

-damaged strand is cut out and replaced with the correct sequence based on complementary base pairing

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64
Q

2 life cycles of viruses

A

Lysogenic cycle

  • viral nucleic acid will insert itself into the host’s genome
  • beneficial to virus because its nucleic acid will be replicated whenever the hosts DNA is replicated
  • virus is dormant and does not harm the host

Lytic cycle

  • virus takes over the host’s cells’s machinery and does en up harming the host
  • breaking apart host genome and replicating many copied of viral nucleic acid; make viral proteins which can lyse (break apart) the host cell and go infect other cells
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65
Q

HIV

A

human immunodeficiency virus

  • RNA virus/retrovirus-a virus that stores its genetic material as RNA
  • carry an enzyme called reverse transcriptase which allows them to convert their RNA into complement DNA (cDNA)
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66
Q

wild type allele

A

normal allele that is most common in nature

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67
Q

Hemizygous

A

individuals will only have one copy of an allele instead of two

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68
Q

penetrance

A

the proportion of individuals who exhibit the phenotype of an allele for a given gene

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69
Q

Complete penetrance
vs
Incomplete penetrance

A

the trait is expressed in the full population that has the allele

when the trait is only expressed in only part of the popuatonin that has the allele

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70
Q

Expressivity

A

degree of a certain phenotype

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71
Q

Incomplete dominance inheritance

A

an intermediate between two phenotypes

Ex: white with red flow producing pink flower

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72
Q

Codominance inheritance

A

contribution of both alleles will be seen

Ex: Blood typing:
A and B= AB blood
-no blood type is dominant

73
Q

Epistasis

A

interaction between genes

-one gene can affect the expression of a different gene

74
Q

Pleiotropy

A

-one gene gives many different traits

CYSTIC FIBROSIS

75
Q

Polygenic inheritance

A

multiple genes affect one trait with continous variation

-one trait given by many different genes

76
Q

Law of independent assortment

A

in meiosis, homologous chromosomes will line up on the metaphase plate independently of one another
-seperation of alleles is totally random

77
Q

Nondisjunction

A

the failure of one or more chromosome pairs to separate properly during anaphase
-results in production of daughter cells with the incorrect number of chromosomes

78
Q

Aneuplooidy

A

abnormal number of chromosomes in the resulting cells

-caused by nondisjunction

79
Q

Down syndrome

A

Trisomy at chromosome 21

  • resulting from nondisjunction at chromosome 21
  • not fatal
80
Q

Turners Syndrome

A

X chromosome monosomy that affects females

-physicial abnormalities and sterility

81
Q

Klinefelters syndrome

A

Sex chromosome trisomy in males

XXY sex chromosomes

82
Q

true breeding organism

A

homozygous for its traits AA or aa

83
Q

F1 generation

A

produced after true breeding parents are crossed

-first generation of offspring

84
Q

Linked genes

A

found closure together on the same chromosome

-

85
Q

haplotype

A

a group of genes that are located so close to each other on a chromosome that they tend to be inherited together

86
Q

Sucrose

A

Glucose + fructose disaccharide

87
Q

Lactose

A

Galactoase + glucose disaccharide

88
Q

Maltose

A

Glucose + glucose disaccharide

89
Q

atom

A

the smallest unit o feather that still retains the chemical properties of the element

90
Q

Cellulose

A

structure component in plant cell walls

  • B bonded polysaccharide
  • linear strands packed rigidly in paralel
91
Q

Chitin

A

structural component of fungi cell walls and insect exoskeletons
-beta bonded polysaccharide with nitrogen added to each monomer

92
Q

RNA world hypothesis

A

RNA dominated Earth’s primordial soup before there was life

-RNA developed SELF REPLICATING mechanism and later could catalyze reactions such as protein synthesis

93
Q

Nucleoplasm

A

cytoplasm of the nucleus

94
Q

nuclear envelope

A

is the membrane of the nucleus

  • contains 2 phospholipid bilayer (one inner and one outer)
  • perinuclear space
95
Q

nuclear lamina

A

provide structural support to the nucleus

-regulate cell division and DNA

96
Q

Nucleolus

A

dense area responsible for making making rRNA

-produce ribosomal subunits

97
Q

Ribosomes

A

not organelles

-small factories that carry out translation

98
Q

Eukaryotic Ribosomal Subunits

A

60s and 40s subunits assemble in the nucleoplasm and form the complete ribosome in the cytosol (80s)

99
Q

Prokaryotic Ribosomal Subunits

A

50s and 30s assemble in the nucleoid and form complete ribosome in the cytosol 70s

100
Q

Golgi Apparatus

A

made up of cisternae (flattened sacs) that modify and package substances

101
Q

Lysosomes

A

membrane bound organelles that breakdown substances via hydrolysis taken in through endocytosis

102
Q

Endomembrane system

A

group of organelles and membranes that work together to modify, package, and transport proteins and lipids

composed of
Nucleus, smooth and rough ER, Golgi apparatus,, lysosomes, vacuoles, cell membrane

103
Q

Mitochondria

A

power house of the celll

-producing ATPfor energy through cellular respiration

104
Q

Cytoskeleton

A 
provide structure
function in the cytoplasm

3 types:
microfilament
intermediate filaments
microtubules

105
Q

Microfilament

A

smallest type of cytoskeleton

  • composed of double helix of actin filaments
  • mainly involved in cell movement
106
Q

Functions of microfilaments

A

1 Cyclosis

  1. Cleavage furrow
  2. Muscle contraction
107
Q

Intermediate filaments

A

middle size type of cytoskeleton

-structural support

108
Q

Lamins

A

type of intermediate filament

-helps make up the nuclear lamina

109
Q

Nuclear lamina

A

network of fibrous intermediate filaments which support the nucleus

110
Q

Microtubules

A

largest type of cytoskeleton

  • give structural integrity to cells, cilia and flagella
  • hollow tubes with walls made of tubular
111
Q

Tight junctions

A

form water-tight seals between cells to ensure substance pass through cells and not between them

112
Q

desmosomes

A

provide support against mechanical stress

-connects neighboring cells via intermediate filaments

113
Q

adherens junctions

A

similar in structure and function to desmosomes

-connects neighboring cells via actin filament

114
Q

Gap junctions

A

allow passage of ions and small molecules between cells

115
Q

Isotonic solutions

A

have the same solute concentrations as the cells placed in them

116
Q

hypertonic solution

A

have a higher solution concentrraiotn than the cells places in them

  • causing water to leave the cell
  • cell shrivels
117
Q

Hypotonic solutions

A

have a lower solute concentrations than cells place them in, causing water to enter the cell
-cell swells up

118
Q

Lysis

A

bursting of the cell when to much water enters via hypotonic solutions

119
Q

Aerobic Cellular Respiration

A

-phosphorylate ADP into ATP by breaking down glucose and moving electrons around

Involves four catabolic processes:
glycolysis
pyruvate manipuations
Krebs cycle
oxidative phosphoryation
120
Q

Where does glycolysis take place?

A

in the cytosol and does not require oxygen–also used in fermentation

121
Q

net product of glycolysis

A

2 ATP

2 NADH

122
Q

Pyruvate Manipulations

A

pyruvate dehydrogenase is the enzyme

1)Decarboxylation
-pyruvate moves from he cytosol into the mitochondrial matrix
-product one CO2
2)oxidation:
2 C molecule converted to acetyl group
-NAD+ to NADH
3)Acetyl CoA is produced

123
Q

Krebs Cycle

A

Occurs in the mitochondrial matrix
-cytosol for prokaryotes

produces NADHx3
GTP
FADH2 linked to electron transport chain

124
Q

Oxidative phosphorylation

A

ETC and chemiosmosis(ions moving down electrochemical gradient) work together to produce ATP

4 protein complexes-oxidation reduction (redox) reactions in ETC

  • protons are pumped from the mitochondrial matrix to t he inter membrane space forming and electro chemical gradient
  • INTERMEMBRANE=highly acidic
125
Q

What is the final electron acceptor in oxidative phosphorylation?

A

Oxygen and gets reduced to water

126
Q

ETC goal

A
  • regenerate electron carriers

- create an electro chemical gradient to power ATP production

127
Q

Where does the ETC occur in eukaryotes and prokaryotes?

A

Mitochondrial inner membrane for eukaryotes

Cell membrane-prokaryotes

128
Q

ATP yield of aerobic cellular respiration?

A

exergonic; negative delta g

36-38 ATP

129
Q

Fermentation

A

anaerobic pathway

  • only relies on glycolysis
  • convert pyruvate into lactate or ethanol to oxidize NADH back to NAD+; now glycolysis can continue
130
Q

Cori cycle

A

used to help convert lactate back into glucose once oxygen is available agin
-transports lactate to liver cells and is oxidized to pyruvate

131
Q

Obligate Aerobes

A

only perform aerobic respiration

-neeed the presence of oxygen to survive

132
Q

obligate anaerobes

A

only undergo anaerobic respiration or fermentation

-oxygen poisens

133
Q

Facultative anaerobes

A

can do:
aerobic respiration
anaerobic respirotn
or fermentation

prefers aerobic respiration, bc it generates more ATP

134
Q

Microaerophiles

A

only perform aerobic respiration

-high amounts of oxygen are harmful

135
Q

Aerotolerant organisms

A

only undergo anaerobic respiration or fermentation

-oxygen not poisonous to them

136
Q

Adipocytes

A

cells that store fats

137
Q

Proteins

A

least dersirable energy source (carbohydrates most desirable energy source)

138
Q

Ammonia

A

toxic

-must be converted into uric acid or urea

139
Q

Heterotrophs

A

must get energy from the food they eat

140
Q

autotrophs

A

can make their own food

141
Q

Photoautotrophs

A

take light energy and convert it to chemical energy using photosynthesis

142
Q

Photosynthesis

A

Creates chemical energy that is transferred through food chains
-reduces atmospheric CO2 and releases O2

Nonspontaneous
-prudcing glucose after an input of solar energy (photon)

143
Q

Photons of light

-in photosynthesis

A

used to synthesize sugars (glucose) in photosynthesis

144
Q

Carbon fixation

A

process by which inorganic CO2 is converted into an organic molecule
-Photosynthesis takes

145
Q

Where does the Calvin cycle occur?

A

Stroma

146
Q

Where do light dependent reactions of photosynthesis occur?

A

Thylakoids

147
Q

Light dependent reactions

A

use light energy to produce ATP and NADPH for later use I the Calvin cycle

148
Q

Calvin Cycle

A

Also known as the light independent reaction

-does not directly use light energy, but can only occur if the light dependent reactions are providing ATP and NADPH

149
Q

Cell Cycle REgulation

A

prevents cancerous growth

1) Surface to Volume ration
- cell division occurs when Volume is to large
- decrease in S/V lead to division
2) Genome to volume ratio:
- decrease in G/V leads to division
- when volume is to large for cells to support its limited geneome

150
Q

Steps of replication

A

1) initiation
- create origins of replication at A-T rich segments of DNA
2) elongation
- producing new DNA strand use different types of enzymes
3) termination
- replication fork cannot continue, ending DNA replication

151
Q

Eukaryotic Post-transcriptional modificaiton

A

conversion of pre-mRNA into processed mRNA
1)5’capping
-protect the mRNA from degradation
2)Polyadenylation of the 3’ end
-prevent degrdation by addition of Poly A tail
3) splicing out introns
-

152
Q

Start Codon

A

AUG (Met)

153
Q

Stop Codons

A

UAA, UAG, UGA

154
Q

anticodon

A

group of three tRNA bases (A, U, G, or C) that base pairs with a codon

155
Q

Aminoacyl-tRNA

A

tRNA bound to an amino acid

156
Q

Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase

A

enzyme that attaches an amino acid to a specific tRNA using the energy from ATp

157
Q

3 methods of horizontal gene transfer in bacteria

A

1) conjugation
- use pili (cytoplasmic bridge)to copy and transfer a special plasmid known as F plasmid
- F+=bacteria contains an F plasmid
- F-= if bacteria doesn’t contain

2) transformation
- bacteria take up extracellular DNA
- Competent bacteria-can perform transformation

3) Transduction
- viruses transfer bacterial DNA between different bacterial hosts
- occurs when bacteriophage enters the lysogenic cycle

158
Q

Plasmids

A

circular DNA pieces that are independent from a bacterias singular circular chromosome

159
Q

Haploinsufficiency

A

one of gene is lost or nonfunctional and the remaining copy is not sufficient for normal phenotype

160
Q

haplosufficiency

A

when the remaining copy of the gene is SUFFICIENT for a normal phenotype

161
Q

Proto-oncogenes

A

genes that can become oncogenes (cancer causing genes) due to gain of function mutations
-cause to much protein to be made or pruductin of an overactive protein

Follow one hit hypothesis

162
Q

Tumor suppressor genes

A

genes that become cancerous as a result of loss-of function mutations
-normally need to suppress cancer growth

follow 2 hit hypothesis
HAPLOsufficient

163
Q

p53

A

important tumor suppressor gene
Called-Guardian of the cell
-upregulated to prevent cell from becoming cancerous

164
Q

p21

A

tumor suppressor gene

-inhibits phosphorylation activity to decrease rampant cell division

165
Q

Retinoblastoma gene (RB)

A

tumor suppressor gene

  • codes for a retinoblastoma protein
  • prevents excessive growth during interphase
166
Q

Crossing over

A

creates genetic diversity

-occurs during prophase 1 of meiosis

167
Q

Karyotyping

A

observe chromosomes under light microscope during metaphase

168
Q

Classifying organisms?

A 
King Phillip Came Over For Great Soup
Kingdom
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species
169
Q

6 kingdoms are?

A

Archaea

  • Eubacteria
  • Protista
  • Fungi
  • Animalia
170
Q

Prokaryotes

A

Do not have a membrane bound nuclei and organelles

Ex: eubacteria and Archaea

171
Q

Eubacteria: Gram Positive vs Gram negative

A

Gram +

  • thick peptidoglycan layer in cell wall
  • stain dark purple
  • no outer membrane

Gram -

  • thin layer of peptidoglycan in cell wall
  • stain pink
  • contain outer membrane

BOTH:
-covered by a capsule

172
Q

Eubacteria vs Arachea

A 
Both:
contain cell walls
-70S ribosome 
-DNA is organized in circular ploasmids (horizontal gene transfer via pilli)
-REPRODUCE VINARY FISSiion

Eubacteria:

  • cell walls contain peptidoglycan
  • ester linkage
  • DNA lack introns and histones

Archaea

  • cell wall lack peptidoglycan
  • ether linkage
  • contain introns comes have histones
173
Q

Eukaryotes

A

contain membrane bound nuclei and organelles

Ex: protista, fungi, plantae, and animalia

174
Q

Protistata

A

unicellular eukaryotic organisms

175
Q

Fungi

A

Heterotrophic saprophytes

1) Nonfilamentous (yeast)
- unicellular
- reproduce asexually by budding
- facultative anaerobes
2) filamentous fungi (molds)
- multicellular
- form hyphae
- reproduce sexually
- aerobic

176
Q

Annelida

A

Earthworm
Bilateral body symmetry
closed circulatory system

177
Q

Founder Effect

A

when a few individuals leave a larger population and settle in a new location
-individuals will have a smaller gene pool than their original population

GENETIC DIVERSITY DECREASED

178
Q

Miller- Urey experiment on earth main conclusion

A

Organic molecules could form under the hypothesized conditions of early earth

179
Q

An individual who is color-blind most likely has some deficiency in which part of the eye?

A

CONES

FUCK (3 decks)

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