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human anatomy > heart > Flashcards

heart Flashcards

1
Q

The only fluid tissue in the human body
Classified as a connective tissue

A

Blood

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2
Q

Living cells
Formed elements
Non-living matrix
Plasma

A

Components of blood

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3
Q

Erythrocytes sink to the bottom (45% of blood, a percentage known as the hematocrit)
Buffy coat contains leukocytes and platelets (less than 1% of blood)
Buffy coat is a thin, whitish layer between the erythrocytes and plasma
Plasma rises to the top (55% of blood)

A

If blood is centrifuged

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3
Q

Color range of blood

A

Oxygen-rich blood is scarlet red
Oxygen-poor blood is dull red

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4
Q

pH must remain between 7.35–7.45
Blood temperature is slightly higher than body temperature at 100.4°F
In a healthy man, blood volume is about 5–6 liters or about 6 quarts
Blood makes up 8% of body weight

A

Characteristics of blood

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4
Q

Composed of approximately 90% water
Includes many dissolved substances
Nutrients
Salts (electrolytes)
Respiratory gases
Hormones
Plasma proteins
Waste products

A

Blood Plasma

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4
Q

Most abundant solutes in plasma

A

Plasma proteins

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4
Q

Most plasma proteins are made by?

A

the liver

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4
Q

Albumin—regulates osmotic pressure
Clotting proteins—help to stem blood loss when a blood vessel is injured
Antibodies—help protect the body from pathogens

A

Various plasma proteins

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5
Q

Blood becomes too acidic

A

Acidosis

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5
Q

Blood becomes too basic

A

Alkalosis

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5
Q

what happens incase alkalosis or acidosis occurs

A

In each scenario, the respiratory system and kidneys help restore blood pH to normal

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5
Q

Red blood cells (RBCs)

A

Erythrocytes

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6
Q

White blood cells (WBCs)

A

Leukocytes

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6
Q

Erythrocytes
Red blood cells (RBCs)
Leukocytes
White blood cells (WBCs)

A

Platelets
Cell fragments

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6
Q

Main function is to carry oxygen

A

Erythrocytes (red blood cells or RBCs)

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6
Q

Biconcave disks
Essentially bags of hemoglobin
Anucleate (no nucleus)
Contain very few organelles

A

Anatomy of circulating erythrocytes

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6
Q

how many rbc’s per cubic mm of blood

A

5 million

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6
Q

Iron-containing protein
Binds strongly, but reversibly, to oxygen
Each hemoglobin molecule has four oxygen binding sites
Each erythrocyte has 250 million hemoglobin molecules
Normal blood contains 12–18 g of hemoglobin per 100 mL blood

A

Hemoglobin

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6
Q

Anemia is a decrease in the oxygen-carrying ability of the blood
Sickle cell anemia (SCA) results from abnormally shaped hemoglobin
Polycythemia is an excessive or abnormal increase in the number of erythrocytes

A

Homeostatic imbalance of RBCs

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6
Q

Crucial in the body’s defense against disease
These are complete cells, with a nucleus and organelles
Able to move into and out of blood vessels (diapedesis)
Can move by ameboid motion
Can respond to chemicals released by damaged tissues
4,000 to 11,000 WBC per cubic millimeter of blood

A

Leukocytes (white blood cells or WBCs)

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6
Q

WBC count above 11,000 leukocytes/mm3
Generally indicates an infection

A

Leukocytosis

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6
Q

Abnormally low leukocyte level
Commonly caused by certain drugs such as corticosteroids and anticancer agents

A

Leukopenia

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7
Q

Bone marrow becomes cancerous, turns out excess WBC

A

Leukemia

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7
Q

Granules in their cytoplasm can be stained
Possess lobed nuclei
Include neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils

A

Granulocytes

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7
Q

Lack visible cytoplasmic granules
Nuclei are spherical, oval, or kidney-shaped
Include lymphocytes and monocytes

A

Agranulocytes

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7
Q

List of the WBCs from most to least abundant

A

Neutrophils
Lymphocytes
Monocytes
Eosinophils
Basophils
Easy way to remember this list
Never
Let
Monkeys
Eat
Bananas

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7
Q

Multilobed nucleus with fine granules
Act as phagocytes at active sites of infection

A

Neutrophils

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7
Q

Large brick-red cytoplasmic granules
Found in response to allergies and parasitic worms

A

Eosinophils

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7
Q

Have histamine-containing granules
Initiate inflammation

A

Basophils

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7
Q

Nucleus fills most of the cell
Play an important role in the immune response

A

Lymphocytes

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8
Q

Largest of the white blood cells
Function as macrophages
Important in fighting chronic infection

A

Monocytes

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9
Q

Derived from ruptured multinucleate cells (megakaryocytes)
Needed for the clotting process
Normal platelet count = 300,000/mm3

A

Platelets

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10
Q

Occurs in red bone marrow

A

Blood cell formation

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11
Q

Stoppage of bleeding resulting from a break in a blood vessel

A

Hemostasis

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11
Q

where are blood cells derivative of

A

All blood cells are derived from a common stem cell (hemocytoblast)

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12
Q

Unable to divide, grow, or synthesize proteins
Wear out in 100 to 120 days
When worn out, RBCs are eliminated by phagocytes in the spleen or liver
Lost cells are replaced by division of hemocytoblasts in the red bone marrow

A

Formation of Erythrocytes

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13
Q

Controlled by hormones
Colony stimulating factors (CSFs) and interleukins prompt bone marrow to generate leukocytes
Thrombopoietin stimulates production of platelets

A

Formation of White Blood Cells and Platelets

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13
Q

Lymphoid stem cell produces lymphocytes
Myeloid stem cell produces all other formed elements

A

Hemocytoblast differentiation

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14
Q

Rate is controlled by a hormone (erythropoietin)
Kidneys produce most erythropoietin as a response to reduced oxygen levels in the blood
Homeostasis is maintained by negative feedback from blood oxygen levels

A

Control of Erythrocyte Production

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15
Q

Vascular spasms
Platelet plug formation
Coagulation (blood clotting)

A

Hemostasis involves three phases

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16
Q

Collagen fibers are exposed by a break in a blood vessel
Platelets become “sticky” and cling to fibers
Anchored platelets release chemicals to attract more platelets
Platelets pile up to form a platelet plug

A

Platelet plug formation

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16
Q

Vasoconstriction causes blood vessel to spasm
Spasms narrow the blood vessel, decreasing blood loss

A

Vascular spasms

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17
Q

Injured tissues release tissue factor (TF)
PF3 (a phospholipid) interacts with TF, blood protein clotting factors, and calcium ions to trigger a clotting cascade
Prothrombin activator converts prothrombin to thrombin (an enzyme)
Thrombin joins fibrinogen proteins into hair-like molecules of insoluble fibrin
Fibrin forms a meshwork (the basis for a clot)

A

Coagulation

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18
Q

Blood usually clots within 3 to 6 minutes
The clot remains as endothelium regenerates
The clot is broken down after tissue repair

A

hemostatis

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19
Q

A clot in an unbroken blood vessel
Can be deadly in areas like the heart

A

Thrombus

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20
Q

A thrombus that breaks away and floats freely in the bloodstream
Can later clog vessels in critical areas such as the brain

A

Embolus

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21
Q

Platelet deficiency
Even normal movements can cause bleeding from small blood vessels that require platelets for clotting

A

Thrombocytopenia

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22
Q

Hereditary bleeding disorder
Normal clotting factors are missing

A

Hemophilia

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23
Q

Loss of 15–30% causes weakness
Loss of over 30% causes shock, which can be fatal

A

Large losses of blood have serious consequences

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24
Q

what are the only way to replace blood quickly

A

Transfusions

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25
Q

Transfused blood must be

A

of the same blood group

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26
Q

Type A
Type B
The lack of these antigens is called type O

A

Based on the presence or absence of two antigens

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26
Q

Blood contains genetically determined proteins

A

Antigens (a substance the body recognizes as foreign) may be attacked by the immune system
Antibodies are the “recognizers”
Blood is “typed” by using antibodies that will cause blood with certain proteins to clump (agglutination)
There are over 30 common red blood cell antigens
The most vigorous transfusion reactions are caused by ABO and Rh blood group antigens

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27
Q

The presence of both antigens A and B is called

A

type AB

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28
Q

The lack of both antigens A and B is called

A

type O

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28
Q

The presence of antigen A is called

A

type A

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29
Q

The presence of antigen B is called

A

type B

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30
Q

Blood type AB can receive A, B, AB, and O blood

A

Universal recipient

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30
Q

Blood type B can receive

A

B and O blood

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31
Q

Danger occurs only when the mother is Rh– and the father is Rh+, and the child inherits the Rh+ factor
RhoGAM shot can prevent buildup of anti-Rh+ antibodies in mother’s blood

A

Rh Dangers During Pregnancy

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31
Q

Blood type O can receive O blood

A

Universal donor

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31
Q

Blood type A can receive

A

A and O blood

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32
Q

Named because of the presence or absence of one of eight Rh antigens (agglutinogen D) that was originally defined in Rhesus monkeys
Most Americans are Rh+ (Rh positive)
Problems can occur in mixing Rh+ blood into a body with Rh– (Rh negative) blood

A

Rh Blood Groups

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33
Q

The first pregnancy usually proceeds without problems
The immune system is sensitized after the first pregnancy
In a second pregnancy, the mother’s immune system produces antibodies to attack the Rh+ blood (hemolytic disease of the newborn)

A

The mismatch of an Rh– mother carrying an Rh+ baby can cause problems for the unborn child

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33
Q

Blood samples are mixed with anti-A and anti-B serum
Coagulation or no coagulation leads to determining blood type
Typing for ABO and Rh factors is done in the same manner
Cross matching—testing for agglutination of donor RBCs by the recipient’s serum, and vice versa

A

Blood Typing

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33
Q

The fetal liver and spleen are early sites of blood cell formation
Bone marrow takes over hematopoiesis by the seventh month

A

Sites of blood cell formation

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33
Q

what heloglobin differs from hemoglobin produced after birth

A

Fetal hemoglobin

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34
Q

results in infants in which the liver cannot rid the body of hemoglobin breakdown products fast enough

A

Physiologic jaundice

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34
Q

Volume of blood pumped by each ventricle in one contraction (each heartbeat)
Usually remains relatively constant
About 70 mL of blood is pumped out of the left ventricle with each heartbeat

A

Stroke volume (SV)

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35
Q

Amount of blood pumped by each side (ventricle) of the heart in one minute

A

Cardiac output (CO)
Amount of blood pum

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36
Q

Typically 75 beats per minute

A

Heart rate (HR)

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37
Q

CO = HR  SV
CO = HR (75 beats/min)  SV (70 mL/beat)
CO = 5250 mL/min

A

The Heart: Cardiac Output

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37
Q

Starling’s law of the heart

A

the more the cardiac muscle is stretched, the stronger the contraction

38
Q

Changing heart rate is the most common way to ?

A

change cardiac output

39
Q

Sympathetic nervous system
Crisis
Low blood pressure

A

Increased heart rate

40
Q

Epinephrine
Thyroxine

A

Hormones

41
Q

Exercise

A

Decreased blood volume

42
Q

Parasympathetic nervous system
High blood pressure or blood volume
Decreased venous return

A

Decreased heart rate

43
Q

Carry blood away from the heart
Arteries
Arterioles

A

Transport blood to the tissues and back

44
Q

Tunic intima
Endothelium
Tunic media
Smooth muscle
Controlled by sympathetic nervous system
Tunic externa
Mostly fibrous connective tissue

A

Three layers (tunics)

44
Q

Capillary beds

A

Exchanges between tissues and blood

44
Q

Venules
Veins

A

Return blood toward the heart

45
Q

Vascular shunt—vessel directly connecting an arteriole to a venule
True capillaries—exchange vessels
Oxygen and nutrients cross to cells
Carbon dioxide and metabolic waste products cross into blood

A

Capillary beds consist of two types of vessels

45
Q

Walls of arteries are the thickest
Lumens of veins are larger
Larger veins have valves to prevent backflow
Skeletal muscle “milks” blood in veins toward the heart
Walls of capillaries are only one cell layer thick to allow for exchanges between blood and tissue

A

Differences Between Blood Vessels

45
Q

Most arterial blood is pumped by the heart
Veins use the milking action of muscles to help move blood

A

Movement of Blood Through Vessels

45
Q

Largest artery in the body
Leaves from the left ventricle of the heart

A

Aorta

45
Q

Ascending aorta—leaves the left ventricle
Aortic arch—arches to the left
Thoracic aorta—travels downward through the thorax
Abdominal aorta—passes through the diaphragm into the abdominopelvic cavity
Arterial branches of the ascending aorta
Right and left coronary arteries serve the heart

A

Regions of aorta

45
Q

Intercostal arteries supply the muscles of the thorax wall
Other branches of the thoracic aorta supply the
Lungs (bronchial arteries)
Esophagus (esophageal arteries)
Diaphragm (phrenic arteries)

A

Arterial branches of the thoracic aorta

45
Q

Brachiocephalic trunk splits into the
Right common carotid artery
Right subclavian artery
Left common carotid artery splits into the
Left internal and external carotid arteries
Left subclavian artery branches into the
Vertebral artery
In the axilla, the subclavian artery becomes the axillary artery  brachial artery  radial and ulnar arteries

A

Arterial branches of the aortia arch (BCS)

46
Q

Superior vena cava drains the head and arms
Inferior vena cava drains the lower body

A

Superior and inferior vena cava enter the right atrium of the heart

46
Q

Radial and ulnar veins  brachial vein  axillary vein
These veins drain the arms
Cephalic vein drains the lateral aspect of the arm and empties into the axillary vein
Basilic vein drains the medial aspect of the arm and empties into the brachial vein
Basilic and cephalic veins are jointed at the median cubital vein (elbow area)
Subclavian vein receives
Venous blood from the arm via the axillary vein
Venous blood from skin and muscles via external jugular vein
Vertebral vein drains the posterior part of the head
Internal jugular vein drains the dural sinuses of the brain
Left and right brachiocephalic veins receive venous blood from the
Subclavian veins
Vertebral veins
Internal jugular veins
Brachiocephalic veins join to form the superior vena cava  right atrium of heart
Azygous vein drains the thorax

A

Veins draining into the superior vena cava

46
Q

Celiac trunk is the first branch of the abdominal aorta. Three branches are
Left gastric artery (stomach)
Splenic artery (spleen)
Common hepatic artery (liver)
Superior mesenteric artery supplies most of the small intestine and first half of the large intestine
Left and right renal arteries (kidney)
Left and right gonadal arteries
Ovarian arteries in females serve the ovaries
Testicular arteries in males serve the testes
Lumbar arteries serve muscles of the abdomen and trunk
Inferior mesenteric artery serves the second half of the large intestine
Left and right common iliac arteries are the final branches of the aorta
Internal iliac arteries serve the pelvic organs
External iliac arteries enter the thigh  femoral artery  popliteal artery  anterior and posterior tibial arteries

A

Arterial branches of the abdominal aorta

47
Q

Anterior and posterior tibial veins and fibial veins drain the legs
Posterior tibial vein  popliteal vein  femoral vein  external iliac vein
Great saphenous veins (longest veins of the body) receive superficial drainage of the legs
Each common iliac vein (left and right) is formed by the union of the internal and external iliac vein on its own side
Right gonadal vein drains the right ovary in females and right testicle in males
Left gonadal vein empties into the left renal vein
Left and right renal veins drain the kidneys
Hepatic portal vein drains the digestive organs and travels through the liver before it enters systemic circulation
Left and right hepatic veins drain the liver

A

Veins draining into the inferior vena cava
`

48
Q

Anterior and posterior blood supplies are united by

A

small communicating arterial branches

48
Q

Vertebral arteries join once within the skull to form the basilar artery

A

Basilar artery serves the brain stem and cerebellum

48
Q

Internal carotid arteries divide into

A

Anterior and middle cerebral arteries
These arteries supply most of the cerebrum

48
Q

These arteries supply the posterior cerebrum

A

Posterior cerebral arteries form from the division of the basilar artery

48
Q

complete circle of connecting blood vessels called

A

cerebral arterial circle or circle of Willis

49
Q

Blood entering right atrium is shunted directly into the left atrium through the foramen ovale
Ductus arteriosus connects the aorta and pulmonary trunk (becomes ligamentum arteriosum at birth)

A

Blood flow bypasses the lungs

49
Q

Fetus receives exchanges of gases, nutrients, and wastes through

A

the placenta

49
Q

Umbilical cord contains three vessels

A

Umbilical vein—carries blood rich in nutrients and oxygen to the fetus
Umbilical arteries (2)—carry carbon dioxide and debris-laden blood from fetus to placenta

49
Q

Blood flow bypasses the liver through the ductus venosus and enters the

A

inferior vena cava  right atrium of heart

49
Q

Digestive organs
Spleen
Pancreas

A

Veins of hepatic portal circulation drain

50
Q

Inferior and superior mesenteric veins
Splenic vein
Left gastric vein

A

Major vessels of hepatic portal circulation

50
Q

Liver helps maintain

A

proper glucose, fat, and protein concentrations in blood

50
Q

Pressure in blood vessels decreases as distance from the heart

A

increases

50
Q

Hepatic portal vein carries this blood to the

A

liver

50
Q

Measurements by health professionals are made on the pressure in large arteries

A

Systolic—pressure at the peak of ventricular contraction
Diastolic—pressure when ventricles relax
Write systolic pressure first and diastolic last (120/80 mm Hg)

50
Q

BP is

A

blood pressure

50
Q

what is affected by age, weight, time of day, exercise, body position, emotional state

A

BP

51
Q

what is the amount of blood pumped out of the left ventricle per minute

A

CO

51
Q

Pressure wave of blood
Monitored at “pressure points” in arteries where pulse is easily palpated
Pulse averages 70–76 beats per minute at rest

A

Pulse

51
Q

what is the formula for BP

A

BP = CO  PR

51
Q

PR is

A

peripheral resistance, or the amount of friction blood encounters as it flows through vessels
Narrowing of blood vessels and increased blood volume increases PR

52
Q

Various substances can cause increases or decreases

A

Chemicals
Diet

52
Q

Temperature

A

Heat has a vasodilating effect
Cold has a vasoconstricting effect

52
Q

Autonomic nervous system adjustments (sympathetic division)

A

Neural factors

52
Q

Regulation by altering blood volume
Renin—hormonal control

A

Renal factors

53
Q

Direct diffusion across

A

plasma membrane

53
Q

Hypertension

A

High systolic (above 140 mm HG)
Can be dangerous if it is chronic

53
Q

Normal

A

140–110 mm Hg systolic
80–75 mm Hg diastolic

53
Q

Some capillaries have gaps (intercellular clefts)

A

Plasma membrane not joined by tight junctions
Fenestrations (pores) of some capillaries

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Blood pressure forces fluid and solutes out of

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capillaries

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Hypotension

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Low systolic (below 110 mm HG)
Often associated with illness

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Oxygen and nutrients leave the blood
Carbon dioxide and other wastes leave the cells

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Substances exchanged due to concentration gradients

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Osmotic pressure draws fluid into

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capillaries

54
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The heart becomes a four-chambered organ by the end of seven weeks
Few structural changes occur after the seventh week

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notes

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Blood pressure is higher than osmotic pressure at the _____ end of the capillary bed

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arterial

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Blood pressure is higher than osmotic pressure at the ____ end of the capillary bed

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veinous

54
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Aging problems associated with the cardiovascular system include

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Venous valves weaken
Varicose veins
Progressive atherosclerosis
Loss of elasticity of vessels leads to hypertension
Coronary artery disease results from vessels filled with fatty, calcified deposits

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A simple “_____” develops in the embryo and pumps by the fourth week

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tube heart

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human anatomy (3 decks)

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