heart Flashcards
1
Q
The only fluid tissue in the human body
Classified as a connective tissue
A
Blood
2
Q
Living cells
Formed elements
Non-living matrix
Plasma
A
Components of blood
3
Q
Erythrocytes sink to the bottom (45% of blood, a percentage known as the hematocrit)
Buffy coat contains leukocytes and platelets (less than 1% of blood)
Buffy coat is a thin, whitish layer between the erythrocytes and plasma
Plasma rises to the top (55% of blood)
A
If blood is centrifuged
3
Q
Color range of blood
A
Oxygen-rich blood is scarlet red
Oxygen-poor blood is dull red
4
Q
pH must remain between 7.35–7.45
Blood temperature is slightly higher than body temperature at 100.4°F
In a healthy man, blood volume is about 5–6 liters or about 6 quarts
Blood makes up 8% of body weight
A
Characteristics of blood
4
Q
Composed of approximately 90% water
Includes many dissolved substances
Nutrients
Salts (electrolytes)
Respiratory gases
Hormones
Plasma proteins
Waste products
A
Blood Plasma
4
Q
Most abundant solutes in plasma
A
Plasma proteins
4
Q
Most plasma proteins are made by?
A
the liver
4
Q
Albumin—regulates osmotic pressure
Clotting proteins—help to stem blood loss when a blood vessel is injured
Antibodies—help protect the body from pathogens
A
Various plasma proteins
5
Q
Blood becomes too acidic
A
Acidosis
5
Q
Blood becomes too basic
A
Alkalosis
5
Q
what happens incase alkalosis or acidosis occurs
A
In each scenario, the respiratory system and kidneys help restore blood pH to normal
5
Q
Red blood cells (RBCs)
A
Erythrocytes
6
Q
White blood cells (WBCs)
A
Leukocytes
6
Q
Erythrocytes
Red blood cells (RBCs)
Leukocytes
White blood cells (WBCs)
A
Platelets
Cell fragments
6
Q
Main function is to carry oxygen
A
Erythrocytes (red blood cells or RBCs)
6
Q
Biconcave disks
Essentially bags of hemoglobin
Anucleate (no nucleus)
Contain very few organelles
A
Anatomy of circulating erythrocytes
6
Q
how many rbc’s per cubic mm of blood
A
5 million
6
Q
Iron-containing protein
Binds strongly, but reversibly, to oxygen
Each hemoglobin molecule has four oxygen binding sites
Each erythrocyte has 250 million hemoglobin molecules
Normal blood contains 12–18 g of hemoglobin per 100 mL blood
A
Hemoglobin
6
Q
Anemia is a decrease in the oxygen-carrying ability of the blood
Sickle cell anemia (SCA) results from abnormally shaped hemoglobin
Polycythemia is an excessive or abnormal increase in the number of erythrocytes
A
Homeostatic imbalance of RBCs
6
Q
Crucial in the body’s defense against disease
These are complete cells, with a nucleus and organelles
Able to move into and out of blood vessels (diapedesis)
Can move by ameboid motion
Can respond to chemicals released by damaged tissues
4,000 to 11,000 WBC per cubic millimeter of blood
A
Leukocytes (white blood cells or WBCs)
6
Q
WBC count above 11,000 leukocytes/mm3
Generally indicates an infection
A
Leukocytosis
6
Q
Abnormally low leukocyte level
Commonly caused by certain drugs such as corticosteroids and anticancer agents
A
Leukopenia
7
Q
Bone marrow becomes cancerous, turns out excess WBC
A
Leukemia
7
Granules in their cytoplasm can be stained
Possess lobed nuclei
Include neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils
Granulocytes
7
Lack visible cytoplasmic granules
Nuclei are spherical, oval, or kidney-shaped
Include lymphocytes and monocytes
Agranulocytes
7
List of the WBCs from most to least abundant
Neutrophils
Lymphocytes
Monocytes
Eosinophils
Basophils
Easy way to remember this list
Never
Let
Monkeys
Eat
Bananas
7
Multilobed nucleus with fine granules
Act as phagocytes at active sites of infection
Neutrophils
7
Large brick-red cytoplasmic granules
Found in response to allergies and parasitic worms
Eosinophils
7
Have histamine-containing granules
Initiate inflammation
Basophils
7
Nucleus fills most of the cell
Play an important role in the immune response
Lymphocytes
8
Largest of the white blood cells
Function as macrophages
Important in fighting chronic infection
Monocytes
9
Derived from ruptured multinucleate cells (megakaryocytes)
Needed for the clotting process
Normal platelet count = 300,000/mm3
Platelets
10
Occurs in red bone marrow
Blood cell formation
11
Stoppage of bleeding resulting from a break in a blood vessel
Hemostasis
11
where are blood cells derivative of
All blood cells are derived from a common stem cell (hemocytoblast)
12
Unable to divide, grow, or synthesize proteins
Wear out in 100 to 120 days
When worn out, RBCs are eliminated by phagocytes in the spleen or liver
Lost cells are replaced by division of hemocytoblasts in the red bone marrow
Formation of Erythrocytes
13
Controlled by hormones
Colony stimulating factors (CSFs) and interleukins prompt bone marrow to generate leukocytes
Thrombopoietin stimulates production of platelets
Formation of White Blood Cells and Platelets
13
Lymphoid stem cell produces lymphocytes
Myeloid stem cell produces all other formed elements
Hemocytoblast differentiation
14
Rate is controlled by a hormone (erythropoietin)
Kidneys produce most erythropoietin as a response to reduced oxygen levels in the blood
Homeostasis is maintained by negative feedback from blood oxygen levels
Control of Erythrocyte Production
15
Vascular spasms
Platelet plug formation
Coagulation (blood clotting)
Hemostasis involves three phases
16
Collagen fibers are exposed by a break in a blood vessel
Platelets become “sticky” and cling to fibers
Anchored platelets release chemicals to attract more platelets
Platelets pile up to form a platelet plug
Platelet plug formation
16
Vasoconstriction causes blood vessel to spasm
Spasms narrow the blood vessel, decreasing blood loss
Vascular spasms
17
Injured tissues release tissue factor (TF)
PF3 (a phospholipid) interacts with TF, blood protein clotting factors, and calcium ions to trigger a clotting cascade
Prothrombin activator converts prothrombin to thrombin (an enzyme)
Thrombin joins fibrinogen proteins into hair-like molecules of insoluble fibrin
Fibrin forms a meshwork (the basis for a clot)
Coagulation
18
Blood usually clots within 3 to 6 minutes
The clot remains as endothelium regenerates
The clot is broken down after tissue repair
hemostatis
19
A clot in an unbroken blood vessel
Can be deadly in areas like the heart
Thrombus
20
A thrombus that breaks away and floats freely in the bloodstream
Can later clog vessels in critical areas such as the brain
Embolus
21
Platelet deficiency
Even normal movements can cause bleeding from small blood vessels that require platelets for clotting
Thrombocytopenia
22
Hereditary bleeding disorder
Normal clotting factors are missing
Hemophilia
23
Loss of 15–30% causes weakness
Loss of over 30% causes shock, which can be fatal
Large losses of blood have serious consequences
24
what are the only way to replace blood quickly
Transfusions
25
Transfused blood must be
of the same blood group
26
Type A
Type B
The lack of these antigens is called type O
Based on the presence or absence of two antigens
26
Blood contains genetically determined proteins
Antigens (a substance the body recognizes as foreign) may be attacked by the immune system
Antibodies are the “recognizers”
Blood is “typed” by using antibodies that will cause blood with certain proteins to clump (agglutination)
There are over 30 common red blood cell antigens
The most vigorous transfusion reactions are caused by ABO and Rh blood group antigens
27
The presence of both antigens A and B is called
type AB
28
The lack of both antigens A and B is called
type O
28
The presence of antigen A is called
type A
29
The presence of antigen B is called
type B
30
Blood type AB can receive A, B, AB, and O blood
Universal recipient
30
Blood type B can receive
B and O blood
31
Danger occurs only when the mother is Rh– and the father is Rh+, and the child inherits the Rh+ factor
RhoGAM shot can prevent buildup of anti-Rh+ antibodies in mother’s blood
Rh Dangers During Pregnancy
31
Blood type O can receive O blood
Universal donor
31
Blood type A can receive
A and O blood
32
Named because of the presence or absence of one of eight Rh antigens (agglutinogen D) that was originally defined in Rhesus monkeys
Most Americans are Rh+ (Rh positive)
Problems can occur in mixing Rh+ blood into a body with Rh– (Rh negative) blood
Rh Blood Groups
33
The first pregnancy usually proceeds without problems
The immune system is sensitized after the first pregnancy
In a second pregnancy, the mother’s immune system produces antibodies to attack the Rh+ blood (hemolytic disease of the newborn)
The mismatch of an Rh– mother carrying an Rh+ baby can cause problems for the unborn child
33
Blood samples are mixed with anti-A and anti-B serum
Coagulation or no coagulation leads to determining blood type
Typing for ABO and Rh factors is done in the same manner
Cross matching—testing for agglutination of donor RBCs by the recipient’s serum, and vice versa
Blood Typing
33
The fetal liver and spleen are early sites of blood cell formation
Bone marrow takes over hematopoiesis by the seventh month
Sites of blood cell formation
33
what heloglobin differs from hemoglobin produced after birth
Fetal hemoglobin
34
results in infants in which the liver cannot rid the body of hemoglobin breakdown products fast enough
Physiologic jaundice
34
Volume of blood pumped by each ventricle in one contraction (each heartbeat)
Usually remains relatively constant
About 70 mL of blood is pumped out of the left ventricle with each heartbeat
Stroke volume (SV)
35
Amount of blood pumped by each side (ventricle) of the heart in one minute
Cardiac output (CO)
Amount of blood pum
36
Typically 75 beats per minute
Heart rate (HR)
37
CO = HR SV
CO = HR (75 beats/min) SV (70 mL/beat)
CO = 5250 mL/min
The Heart: Cardiac Output
37
Starling’s law of the heart
the more the cardiac muscle is stretched, the stronger the contraction
38
Changing heart rate is the most common way to ?
change cardiac output
39
Sympathetic nervous system
Crisis
Low blood pressure
Increased heart rate
40
Epinephrine
Thyroxine
Hormones
41
Exercise
Decreased blood volume
42
Parasympathetic nervous system
High blood pressure or blood volume
Decreased venous return
Decreased heart rate
43
Carry blood away from the heart
Arteries
Arterioles
Transport blood to the tissues and back
44
Tunic intima
Endothelium
Tunic media
Smooth muscle
Controlled by sympathetic nervous system
Tunic externa
Mostly fibrous connective tissue
Three layers (tunics)
44
Capillary beds
Exchanges between tissues and blood
44
Venules
Veins
Return blood toward the heart
45
Vascular shunt—vessel directly connecting an arteriole to a venule
True capillaries—exchange vessels
Oxygen and nutrients cross to cells
Carbon dioxide and metabolic waste products cross into blood
Capillary beds consist of two types of vessels
45
Walls of arteries are the thickest
Lumens of veins are larger
Larger veins have valves to prevent backflow
Skeletal muscle “milks” blood in veins toward the heart
Walls of capillaries are only one cell layer thick to allow for exchanges between blood and tissue
Differences Between Blood Vessels
45
Most arterial blood is pumped by the heart
Veins use the milking action of muscles to help move blood
Movement of Blood Through Vessels
45
Largest artery in the body
Leaves from the left ventricle of the heart
Aorta
45
Ascending aorta—leaves the left ventricle
Aortic arch—arches to the left
Thoracic aorta—travels downward through the thorax
Abdominal aorta—passes through the diaphragm into the abdominopelvic cavity
Arterial branches of the ascending aorta
Right and left coronary arteries serve the heart
Regions of aorta
45
Intercostal arteries supply the muscles of the thorax wall
Other branches of the thoracic aorta supply the
Lungs (bronchial arteries)
Esophagus (esophageal arteries)
Diaphragm (phrenic arteries)
Arterial branches of the thoracic aorta
45
Brachiocephalic trunk splits into the
Right common carotid artery
Right subclavian artery
Left common carotid artery splits into the
Left internal and external carotid arteries
Left subclavian artery branches into the
Vertebral artery
In the axilla, the subclavian artery becomes the axillary artery brachial artery radial and ulnar arteries
Arterial branches of the aortia arch (BCS)
46
Superior vena cava drains the head and arms
Inferior vena cava drains the lower body
Superior and inferior vena cava enter the right atrium of the heart
46
Radial and ulnar veins brachial vein axillary vein
These veins drain the arms
Cephalic vein drains the lateral aspect of the arm and empties into the axillary vein
Basilic vein drains the medial aspect of the arm and empties into the brachial vein
Basilic and cephalic veins are jointed at the median cubital vein (elbow area)
Subclavian vein receives
Venous blood from the arm via the axillary vein
Venous blood from skin and muscles via external jugular vein
Vertebral vein drains the posterior part of the head
Internal jugular vein drains the dural sinuses of the brain
Left and right brachiocephalic veins receive venous blood from the
Subclavian veins
Vertebral veins
Internal jugular veins
Brachiocephalic veins join to form the superior vena cava right atrium of heart
Azygous vein drains the thorax
Veins draining into the superior vena cava
46
Celiac trunk is the first branch of the abdominal aorta. Three branches are
Left gastric artery (stomach)
Splenic artery (spleen)
Common hepatic artery (liver)
Superior mesenteric artery supplies most of the small intestine and first half of the large intestine
Left and right renal arteries (kidney)
Left and right gonadal arteries
Ovarian arteries in females serve the ovaries
Testicular arteries in males serve the testes
Lumbar arteries serve muscles of the abdomen and trunk
Inferior mesenteric artery serves the second half of the large intestine
Left and right common iliac arteries are the final branches of the aorta
Internal iliac arteries serve the pelvic organs
External iliac arteries enter the thigh femoral artery popliteal artery anterior and posterior tibial arteries
Arterial branches of the abdominal aorta
47
Anterior and posterior tibial veins and fibial veins drain the legs
Posterior tibial vein popliteal vein femoral vein external iliac vein
Great saphenous veins (longest veins of the body) receive superficial drainage of the legs
Each common iliac vein (left and right) is formed by the union of the internal and external iliac vein on its own side
Right gonadal vein drains the right ovary in females and right testicle in males
Left gonadal vein empties into the left renal vein
Left and right renal veins drain the kidneys
Hepatic portal vein drains the digestive organs and travels through the liver before it enters systemic circulation
Left and right hepatic veins drain the liver
Veins draining into the inferior vena cava
`
48
Anterior and posterior blood supplies are united by
small communicating arterial branches
48
Vertebral arteries join once within the skull to form the basilar artery
Basilar artery serves the brain stem and cerebellum
48
Internal carotid arteries divide into
Anterior and middle cerebral arteries
These arteries supply most of the cerebrum
48
These arteries supply the posterior cerebrum
Posterior cerebral arteries form from the division of the basilar artery
48
complete circle of connecting blood vessels called
cerebral arterial circle or circle of Willis
49
Blood entering right atrium is shunted directly into the left atrium through the foramen ovale
Ductus arteriosus connects the aorta and pulmonary trunk (becomes ligamentum arteriosum at birth)
Blood flow bypasses the lungs
49
Fetus receives exchanges of gases, nutrients, and wastes through
the placenta
49
Umbilical cord contains three vessels
Umbilical vein—carries blood rich in nutrients and oxygen to the fetus
Umbilical arteries (2)—carry carbon dioxide and debris-laden blood from fetus to placenta
49
Blood flow bypasses the liver through the ductus venosus and enters the
inferior vena cava right atrium of heart
49
Digestive organs
Spleen
Pancreas
Veins of hepatic portal circulation drain
50
Inferior and superior mesenteric veins
Splenic vein
Left gastric vein
Major vessels of hepatic portal circulation
50
Liver helps maintain
proper glucose, fat, and protein concentrations in blood
50
Pressure in blood vessels decreases as distance from the heart
increases
50
Hepatic portal vein carries this blood to the
liver
50
Measurements by health professionals are made on the pressure in large arteries
Systolic—pressure at the peak of ventricular contraction
Diastolic—pressure when ventricles relax
Write systolic pressure first and diastolic last (120/80 mm Hg)
50
BP is
blood pressure
50
what is affected by age, weight, time of day, exercise, body position, emotional state
BP
51
what is the amount of blood pumped out of the left ventricle per minute
CO
51
Pressure wave of blood
Monitored at “pressure points” in arteries where pulse is easily palpated
Pulse averages 70–76 beats per minute at rest
Pulse
51
what is the formula for BP
BP = CO PR
51
PR is
peripheral resistance, or the amount of friction blood encounters as it flows through vessels
Narrowing of blood vessels and increased blood volume increases PR
52
Various substances can cause increases or decreases
Chemicals
Diet
52
Temperature
Heat has a vasodilating effect
Cold has a vasoconstricting effect
52
Autonomic nervous system adjustments (sympathetic division)
Neural factors
52
Regulation by altering blood volume
Renin—hormonal control
Renal factors
53
Direct diffusion across
plasma membrane
53
Hypertension
High systolic (above 140 mm HG)
Can be dangerous if it is chronic
53
Normal
140–110 mm Hg systolic
80–75 mm Hg diastolic
53
Some capillaries have gaps (intercellular clefts)
Plasma membrane not joined by tight junctions
Fenestrations (pores) of some capillaries
53
Blood pressure forces fluid and solutes out of
capillaries
53
Hypotension
Low systolic (below 110 mm HG)
Often associated with illness
53
Oxygen and nutrients leave the blood
Carbon dioxide and other wastes leave the cells
Substances exchanged due to concentration gradients
54
Osmotic pressure draws fluid into
capillaries
54
The heart becomes a four-chambered organ by the end of seven weeks
Few structural changes occur after the seventh week
notes
54
Blood pressure is higher than osmotic pressure at the _____ end of the capillary bed
arterial
54
54
54
54
Blood pressure is higher than osmotic pressure at the ____ end of the capillary bed
veinous
54
Aging problems associated with the cardiovascular system include
Venous valves weaken
Varicose veins
Progressive atherosclerosis
Loss of elasticity of vessels leads to hypertension
Coronary artery disease results from vessels filled with fatty, calcified deposits
55
A simple “_____” develops in the embryo and pumps by the fourth week
tube heart
55
55
56
56
57
57
57
57
57
57
58
58
58
58
58
58
58
59
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
61
61
61
61
62
62
62
62
62
62
63
63
63
63
63
64
64
65
65
65
65
66
