Health Studies Midterm 1 Flashcards
Aerobic Exercise
Uses large amounts of oxygen that’s consistently supplied to the body. E.X Marathon, Soccer, Swimming
- improves cardiorespiratory endurance
Anaerobic Exercise
Uses glucose instead of oxygen. More intense over short time. E.X Weight lifting, Sprints
- Creates an oxygen deficit as the amount of oxygen taken in by the body cannot meet the demands of the activity
Cardiorespiratory fitness
Ability of the heart to pump blood through the body to sustain prolonged rhythmic activity
VO2 Max
Maximum amount of oxygen that can be delivered to your muscles during maximal, or intense, exercise
Describe a MET
Amount of oxygen consumed by your body while sitting at rest (resting metabolism)
= 3.5 mL of oxygen per kg body weight X minutes
Isometric contraction
Muscle applies force while maintaining an equal length
Isotonic contraction
Dynamic muscle movement against a constant resistance several times
* Concentric phase: working muscle shortens
* Eccentric phase: working muscle lengthens
Describe the process of deoxygenated blood –> lungs
- Blood enters heart from the superior and inferior vena cava
- Blood in right atrium flows into right ventricle
- Contraction of right ventricle opens pulmonary valve
- Blood flows into pulmonary trunk
- Blood is distributed by pulmonary arteries to lungs, CO2 is replaced by O2
Describe the process of oxygenated blood in lungs –> heart
- Blood returns to heart from lungs via pulmonary veins to left atrium
- Blood flows through left AV valve into left ventricle
- Ventricle contracts which opens aortic valve
- Blood flows through aortic valve into ascending aorta
- Blood flows and distributes O2 to all organs, receives CO2
What is the main purpose of the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)?
Regulate organs to maintain homeostasis of the body
What’re the two branches of the ANS?
Parasympathetic: Rest functions, located at top and bottom of spine
Sympathetic: Fight-or-Flight, located in middle of spine
Acute time-limited stressors
Short-term (turn on your ZOOM camera and introduce yourself to the class)
Brief stressors
Can occur daily but there is an endpoint (assignments deadlines, midterm)
Life-changing events
Challenging at the time and at some point the challenges will subside but will have long-lasting impact (COVID pandemic)
Chronic stressors
on-going demands often requiring change to your life; unsure where there will be an endpoint or not (fleeing your home country as a refugee)
Distant stressors
traumatic experiences that have occurred in the past and/or future; consequences that can’t easily be solved (PTSD)
What are the two diseases of the adrenal gland?
Cushing’s syndrome: Adrenal gland over produces cortisol
Addisons disease: Adrenal gland under-produces hormones including cortisol
What is the function of cortisol
The primary stress hormone, increases sugars (glucose) in the bloodstream, enhances your brain’s use of glucose and increases the availability of substances that repair tissues.
Describe an ecological study
Made on groups of people, useful for comparing health of different populations and generating questions
Describe case-control surveys
Case vs controls for risk factors, odds of exposed - case / odds of exposure - control = odd ration
Describe a cross-sectional survey
Health information at a point in time. Questionnaire and health surveys. Assessing exposure / outcomes
Describe case-series surveys
Describes characteristics of same disease or exposure, describe something unusual
What’re intervention surveys
Giving medicine to a group of people results in outcomes, testing results of new drugs
Describe a cohort survey
Group about people over time, compare outcomes. Relative risk = risk of disease in exposed / risk in unexposed
RR > 1 increased risk
RR = 1 same
RR < 1 decreased risk
_______ _________ (anywhere on body and in ______) relays to autonomic control centres in the brain
Sensory information, viscera
What are the parts and descriptions in order of the GAS?
_____ overload (______: changes that occur to return to homeostasis) can result in damage that will be seen as illness and disease, or death
Allostatic, allostasis
What’re the 7 short-term stress responses?
- Increased heart rate
- Increased blood pressure
- Liver converts glycogen to glucose, glucose gets distributed to body
- Airways open
- Increased alertness
- Decreased digestive system activity
- Increased metabolic rate
What is the pathway from hypothalamus –> epinephrine for short-term stress responses?
- Hypothalamus
- Nerve impulses
- Spinal chord
- Sympathetic nervous system
- Adrenal medullas
- Becomes epinephrine (adrenaline)
What are the 5 long-term stress responses?
Mineralocoritonids:
1. Kidneys retain more water
2. Increased blood volume and pressure
Cortisol:
1. Proteins and fat converted to glucose, used for energy
2. Increased blood sugar
3. Supression of immune system
What is the pathway from hypothalamus –> mineralocoritonids and cortisol, long-term stress?
- Hypothalamus
- Hormones released
- Pituitary gland
- ACTH produced
- Pass through blood to adrenal complex
- Cortisol or mineralocoritonids produced
__________________________ is a treatment that focuses on changing unhelpful behaviours, attitudes, beliefs, and thoughts.
Cognitive behavioural therapy
Why does stress lead to stress eating?
- Stress stimulates hypothalamus
- Signals are sent to pituitary gland
- ACTH is produced and goes to adrenal glands
- AG produces epinephrine (Adrenaline) which causes desire for sweet foods
- The neuropeptides elevate mood, increases desire for sweet rewards (behaviour increases)
How does stress negatively impact the body?
- Thickening of arteries
- Buildup of fat / adipose tissue in the heart
- Immune cells expelled from bones (decreased immune system strength)
- Abnormal blood clotting and vascular activity
why might you be more forgetful when you are under stress or may even experience memory lapses during traumatic events?
The brain is shunting its resources because it’s in survival mode, not memory mode. So empty out all the useless jeopardy answers, keep all the survival instincts
What hormones are released when smoking a cigarette?
- Adrenaline: Fight or flight
- Dopamine: Pleasure system
- Acetylcholine: Binds on nicotinic receptor; found in CNS, PNS, & muscles; NICOTINE is an AGONIST
- Endorphins: Interact with opioid receptors of brain to reduce pain centre
Why do we become addicted to cigarettes?
Nicotine, like ACh, is a nicotinic receptor agonist. The binding of nicotine and ACh to nicotinic receptors cause a conformational change that either opens or closes the receptors’ ion channels, thereby changing the receptors’ functional state.
How come smoking cigarettes causes weight loss?
Nicotine binds to nAchRs which activate POMCs. Proopiomelanocortin (POMC) neurons in the arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus are activated by energy surfeits and inhibited by energy deficits. When activated, these cells inhibit food intake and facilitate weight loss.
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is an umbrella term used for a number of conditions including what and what?
Bronchitis:
- Inflammation of airways and mucus buildup in bronchioles
Emphysema:
- Elasticity and collapse of alveoli results in shortness of breath
How come smokers have weaker bones?
Smoking causes an increase in cortisol (when not smoking) and also decreased intestinal calcium absorption which leads to a decreased bone density. It also limits the amount of collagen produced which is needed to form new bone.
How come smoking increases chances of erectile dysfunction?
Cigarette smoking decreases NO synthesis. NO relaxes the smooth muscles of the penis which allows them to expand and fill up with blood when you get an erection (vasodilation), so a lack of NO = decreased vasodilation
Furthermore smoking causes endothelial dysfunction which causes the arteries to narrow, this reduces bloodflow to the penis preventing it from reaching max erection
How does smoking affect pregnant women?
Smoking can cause epigenetic changes which are changes that result in the expression / supression of certain genes. This is what causes fetal alcohol syndrome. When a pregnant mother smokes the epigenetic changes can / will affect three generations. The mother, her unborn daughter and that child’s kids.
______ ______ are reversible and don’t change your DNA. But they affect how genes get turned on & off, through changes to ______ as well as binding to DNA.
Epigenetic changes, histones
_________ changes to DNA _______ due to smoking can be traced over multiple generations and influence health of children & grandchildren.
Genome-wide, methylation
The ______ contains most of the enzymes required for _______ in your body
liver, detoxification
Catalase, CYP2E1, aldehyde dehydrogenase, and aldehyde dehydrogenase 2 are all involved in
_____ _____
alcohol metabolism
This process of alcohol oxidation leaves ______ ______ & _______ behind in hepatocytes, which can cause damage
free radicals, acetaldehyde
_______ can cause inflammatory responses & depresses the central nervous system
once in the blood.
Acetate
How come the “Asian flush” occurs when drinking?
- Inheritance of inactive aldehyde dehydrogenase 2 enzyme, causes acetaldehyde to accumulate in blood (can’t be converted to acetate fast enough).
- Facial flushing, heart palpitations, and headaches due to this accumulation (usually) limits alcohol consumption.
- Acetaldehyde is toxic and results in an immune response (the facial flush) but can also leave individuals at higher risk of esophageal cancer.
What is Thiamine (Vitamin B1)
- Alcoholics may develop a thiamine deficit because of impaired thiamine absorption from the intestine . Alcohol damages the lining of the intestine and directly inhibits the transport mechanism that is responsible for thiamine absorption in the intestinal tract
- Needed as a cofactor to generate ATP
- Needed by all cells in the body
- Brain regions differ in sensitivity to thiamine deficiency, with cerebellum (responsible to motor control) frequently damaged.
How does alcoholism cause anemia?
- Low oxygen-carrying capacity of blood due to lower than normal number of red blood cells.
- Alcoholism causes a reduced production of red blood cells and can cause them to be deformed, thus non-functioning
What are four conditions that occur when material doesn’t move properly in the GI tract?
- Achalasia: Movement of food through oesophagus doesn’t progress to the stomach
- GERD: Sphincter between oesophagus & stomach doesn’t close properly
-Gastroparesis: Stomach takes too long to empty
- Diarrhoea: Rapid transit of material through large intestine & water can’t be reabsorbed
What are three conditions that occur when material can’t be brought into body?
- Crohn’s disease: Inflammation of digestive tract causes damage which interferes with cells responsible for secreting and absorbing material
- Liver disease: Inability to create bile acids to aid in fat digestion
- Pernicious anaemia: Inability to absorb Vitamin B12 (Important for RBC formation), often due to insufficient secretion of intrinsic factor from stomach
What does intrinsic factor do?
It binds to and escorts vitamin B14 from the stomach to the intestines where it can be absorbed
Describe carbohydrates
- Digestive enzymes
- Disaccharide + water → 2 Monosaccharides
- One monosaccharide would be glucose
- The body’s primary source of energy and the brain’s preferred energy source
Describe proteins
- Peptide + Water → 2 amino acids
- Digestive enzymes
- Helps repair and build your body’s tissues. It drives metabolic reactions, maintains pH and fluid balance, and keeps the immune system strong
Describe lipids
- Fat + water → 3 fatty acids + 1 Glycerol
- Help with moving and storing energy, absorbing vitamins and making hormones
Note: All are the initial form (reactants) and then the nutrient form which passes through the digestive tract (products)
What are four products made in the stomach that aid with digestion?
- Rugae: Folds in stomach, allow expansion and also food storage and + surface area
- Chief cells: pepsinogen produced in gastric pits which helps w digestion
- Parietal cells: HCl producers, help with digestion of food, absorption of minerals, and control of harmful bacteria
- Mucous cells: Secretes mucus which acts as a protective lining for the stomach
Describe the small intestine
Duodenum = 1st 25cm
Jejunum = next ⅖ of length
Ileum = next ⅗ of length
- Centre for chemical digestion, nutrient and water absorption
- Large surface area due to:
- Permanent folds
- Microscopic finger-like projections (villi)
-Hair-like projections (microvilli) on the epithelial cells covering the villus
- Nutrients pass through villi into the epithelium which is made up of individual cells called enterocytes
What are the differences between simple and complex carbs?
Complex:
- Polysaccharides
E.G Starch or Glycogen
- Must be broken down to simple (mono) carbs
Simple:
- Monosaccharides
- One unit of sugar - can be glucose, fructose or galactose
- Maltase = 2 Gluc, Sucrase = 1 Gluc, 1 Fruc, Lactase = 1 Gluc, 1 Galac
How are carbs digested ?
- Salivary amylase digests in mouth
- Pancreatic amylase digests in intestine
- Brush border enzymes (found in brush-like microvilli in small intestine) aid in further digestion for absorption
- Once broken down to monosaccharides, pass through epithelial layer and into circulate
- Short-term storage as glycogen in muscles and liver
_________ amino acids = derived from food we eat, body cannot produce enough on its own
_________ amino acids = Synthesised under certain (pathological) conditions
_________ amino acids = Can be made in significant quantities within the body
Essential
Conditionally Essential
Non-Essential
How are proteins digested?
- Begins in stomach where enzymes break down proteins into polypeptides
- Once small enough, moves into small intestine
- In SI, pancreatic enzymes break polypeptide bonds to form peptides and amino acids
- Stored as structural proteins in the body and not broken down unless desperate
How are lipids digested?
- Small percentage are digested by enzymes in the mouth and stomach
- Majority occurs in the small intestine to be absorbed into the lymphatic system which then dumps it into the circulatory system
- Fat is the densest food type (9 kilocalories per gram)
- Fatty acids: Long term storage as triglycerides (whole fat) in adipose tissue
- Travels in blood as a lipoprotein called chylomicron
- _____ _______ = Income is adequate to access good quality and quantity of food
- _____ _______= Income is inadequate to access good quality and quantity of food
Food security
Food insecurity
What is a food combining diet?
- Dumbass idea / concept that says you should only eat certain proteins together, or only fruit on an empty stomach and you can’t combined FOODX with FOODY
- Causes negative weight loss
- WE ARE LITERALLY MADE TO EAT NUTRIENTS TOGETHER SO IT MAKES NO SENSE
Describe celiacs disease
- Gluten changes to gliadin
- Immune cells interact with gliadin
- Harmful chemicals released in response
- Antibodies to gliadin damages enterocytes
- Damage to epithelial cells
- Results in less surface area to which nutrients can pass through to epithelial layer, also results in diarrhoea because nutrients and stuff are left behind instead of being processed
What causes lactose intolerance ?
The underproduction of lactase enzyme which is needed to break down lactose monosaccharide. So there is a buildup of waste that isn’t broken down which causes diarrhea
What is the process from dehydration to hydration?
Just understand the diagram
Describe the micronutrients, minerals?
- Most come from diet
- Can be water (not storable in body) or fat (storable) soluable
- Minerals include:
- Calcium (bones)
*Sodium (blood pressure, body fluids, nerve signals, muscle function)
*Iron (haemoglobin oxygen binding site)
Describe anemia in the context of pregnancy
- Iron deficiencies are common among reproducing women due to high demand during pregnancy, lactation and loss of menstruation
- Is hereditary
- When anaemia during pregnancy is severe, can result in foetal distress, premature birth and small gestational weight
- RBCs (Erythrocyte) have an iron dependant stage of development at 17 days, so without iron they cannot fully develop done in bone marrow
- Iron is absorbed by your duodenum, carried in blood to bone marrow or produces myoglobin in muscles. Can be stored as hepatocytes in the kidney
- Women 19-50 require more iron cuz they lose bloods during menstruation
What is the difference between wasting and stunting?
Forms of malnutrition:
- Wasting = Malnutrition during growth spurt causing lanky tall kids
- Stunting = Malnutrition during growth spurt causing a stunting an lack of growth
What are climate forcings?
- Human or natural things that drive climate change
- Leads to things like the greenhouse gas effect which is when water vapour and greenhouse gases absorb infrared solar radiation and traps it, causing a surface temperature increase.
- Does not directly cause rainfall or drought however increase temps = increased evaporation rates either leading to increased rainfall or droughts
What are some effects of natural disasters?
- Flooding may create stagnant pools where water-borne microorganisms can spread disease
- Mosquitoes migrate into warmer areas (bringing disease)
- Spore dispersal increases
- Power loss
- Property and physical damages
Describe hepatitis A
A water-borne illness that spreads through contact or eating viral food / water. Spreads mainly faecal-oral route. No drug treatment but a good vaccine. Some people don’t get sick, just remain as ignorant spreaders. Causes inflammation of the liver which can cause cancer or failure.
Describe the ozone in context of pollution
- Being produced via chemical reactions between NOx + VOCs + heat
- At ground level is bad
- Inhalation of ozone will draw it into your alveoli and fluids which causes lung muscles to contract, narrowing out the airway and thus making it harder to breathe. NOT GOOD
What makes wildfires detrimental to health?
- Release smoke which is bad for environment
- Inhaling the particles released from the fires gets them trapped into your mucous and can travel deep into the lungs, potential blocking them after excessive accumulation
What is allergic asthma?
- A breathing condition where the airways you breathe through tighten when you inhale an allergen
- As the earth heats, pollen levels increase which contribute to allergic reactions / responses
What is the urban heat island effect?
- Our built urban environment amplifies the effect of heat
- Rather than cooling surfaces (water and trees) you have heating surfaces (asphalt and buildings)
- Those living in urban heat islands have less reprieve because cooling doesn’t happen at night
How does sweating work and why do we do it?
- Caused by eccrine gland (water and salt) and apocrine gland (oils)
- When hot sweat is released through hair follicles, sweat requires heat to be evaporated off of the skin and cold air helps cool you off
- High humidity = Less sweat that evaporates, thus harder to cool ourselves
- The older you are the harder it is to sweat
How does heat affect blood flow regulation?
- Heat or lack of can cause vasodilation (when hot) or vasoconstriction (when cold)
- Age impedes on your ability to do these things
- Heat increases heart rate because blood must be pumped to skin, causing the other organs to be semi-neglected, thus the rate must increase to keep the organ levels the same and skin levels above average
What is the difference between heat exhaustion and heat stroke?
- Exhaustion = Faint or dizzy, excess sweating, vomiting or muscle cramps
- Can be helped by being cooled down
-Stroke = Confuse, no sweating, temp > 40º, vomiting and may lose consciousness / seizing
- Call 911 and cool person until they arrive
How do factories influence pollution?
- When draining effluents into water they pollute it because of the toxins within them
- Produce smog which pollutes the air, lowering the quality
What is Traffic-Related Air Pollution?
Gases released as byproducts from vehicles which lead to decreased health
Note:
The 401 is like a belt with huge Nitric Oxide NO2 levels that are intense at the middle and dissipate with range
What are the differences between ethyl and methyl mercury?
- Ethyl = Formed when body breaks down thimerosal which gets excreted through stool, found in tattoo ink
- Methyl = Formed naturally (Bad)
What happened with minimata bay?
- A place in Japan where industrial waste from factories containing Hg was released into waterways
- The mercury was methylated and formed methylmercury
- Accumulates in fish, contaminating the food source
- Pregnant women who ate these fish had fucked up lil babies
- MeHg mimics methionine to be transported across placenta and the BBB causing bilateral activation of the brain which is bad for some reason
- Minamata disease is the mercury poisoning illness named after the bay
Note: Very similar thing happened in grassy narrows the first nations reserve
What is the wear-and-tear theory?
- A balance between damage and repair. Damage can be from environmental and genetic risk factors. Eventually there is more damage than repair, causing ageing over time
_________ = programmed cell death, so if they’re weak they’ll just kill themselves
_________ = Accumulated damage that deteriorates the cell
_____ ______ _____ = pre much a cancer cell
Apoptosis
Senescence
Somatic oncogenic mutations
Why do we age?
-Homeostatic processes become limited due to impaired communication between cells
- Repair and regeneration of cells becomes dysfunctional
- Accumulated damage causes age-associated decline in tissue functioning
- Diseases associated with specific damage results
Describe free radicals and reactive oxygen species
- Free radicals are unstable atoms which take electrons from other atoms in order to stabilise themselves whilst in the process destabilising the other atom, creating a chain reaction of re and de stabilising
- Damage proteins, mitochondria and cell membranes as well as cause DNA damage and mutation
- Reactive Oxygen Species = Molecules that have a free radical which happen to be oxygen
What are antioxidants?
- Molecules that are stable despite having too many electrons
- Can be used as a stopper to the ROS chain reaction by donating one of their extra electrons and stabilising the ROS
- Brightly coloured fruits (especially blueberries) have antioxidants
What do ROSs do?
A build up of reactive oxygen species in cells may cause damage to DNA, RNA, and proteins, and may cause cell death
How does age affect telomeres?
- As we age the telomere caps on the ends of DNA begin to shrink
- Only present in eggs, sperm and stem cells and can be deactivated by somatic cells
- With more duplications there are greater chances of damage occurring which ends up shortening the telomere, healthy cell → senescent cell pipeline. So as time goes on there are more and more duplications that occur and thus more and more chances have passed in which the cells may end up damaged
What is the activity theory?
By staying active physically and mentally at an old age you can delay ageing / age more healthily
What is the continuity theory?
The continuity theory of normal aging states that older adults will usually maintain the same activities, behaviors, relationships as they did in their earlier years of life
What is Gerotranscendence Theory?
As individuals age they undergo cognitive transformation from a rational, materialistic perspective to become one with the universe
What is demographic transition theory?
- Gradual changes that occur within a countries populations
- Emphasis on the economic development of a country and it’s impact on a population
Stage 1: High Birth, High Death. Stable / minor increase in population
Stage 2: High Birth, Rapid declining Death. Rapid increase in population
Stage 3: Falling Birth, Slower Falling Death. Increase slows down
Stage 4: Low Birth, Low Death. Falling then stable
Stage 5: Rising Birth, Low Death. Slow increase
What are the three forms of hearing loss?
- Conductive hearing loss which is damage to the external or middle ear
- Sensorineural hearing loss is damage to the cochlea inner ear and cranial nerve
- Central auditory processing disorders
is damage to brain auditory tracts
Try to memorise these parts of the ear
What are cataracts ?
As you age and your vision begins to become foggy / cloudy. You aren’t blind but your vision is super blurry
How are smell and taste lost as you age?
- Atrophy of olfactory bulb as dead nerves cannot be regenerated, thus causing an eventual loss of smell
- Damaged taste receptors are also not regenerated, leading to eventual loss of taste
- Amygdaloid complex helps remember the emotions associated with certain smells but loses its strength / capacity with time
How does your skin become more fragile as you age?
- Wrinkles
- Cuts and bruises are easier to develop and harder to heal
- As you age you develop a:
- Thinned epidermis
- Decreased vascularity
- Disorganised collagen
- Subcutaneous fat layer is lost
- Decreased pilosebaceous units and greyed hair
What are some neuromuscular changes that occur as you age?
- As we age signal transductions down muscle nerve pathways decreases causing slower reaction times
- Size of neuromuscular junctions decrease so size of action potentials sent down cannot be as large
- Muscle cells are not regenerated, can lead to atrophy (shrinking) of the muscle fibres
- Less mitochondria in muscle fibres → - ATP production → impaired muscle contraction
- Sarcopenia = reduced muscle mass
- Water in body is decreased (muscles shrink)
How is sleep affected by age?
You are “awake” more when you’re old
You require less sleep
Elderlies cannot reach stage 4 sleep, time spent in slow wave sleep (delta) decreases a ton
What are the sleep stages?
- N1 (Stage 1) - Light Sleep (theta waves)
- N2 (Stage 2) - Deeper Sleep (sleep spindles & K complexes)
- N3 (Stage 3) - Deepest Non-REM Sleep (delta waves)
- REM (beta waves)
How is the brain affected by aging?
Negatively:
- Aging causes loss of neural distinctiveness/differentiation which is the unorganised additional activation and suppression of brain regions
- Neural inefficiency which is less suppression of brain activity and cognitive decline
Positively:
- Neural compensation is the additional activation needed to minimise cognitive decline
- Brain maintenance is when no changes to brain activity occur and cognition remains intact
_____ memory is declarative (something you can explain), declines with age
_____ memory is your known knowledge and concepts that you’ve learned
_____ memory are experienced events, memories of times of the past
Explicit
Semantic
Episodic
Describe implicit memory
- Implicit memory is non-declarative (unconscious things), improves with age
- Procedural skills are things like language or knowing how to ride a bike
- Classical conditioning
