Health Psychology Part 2 Flashcards
What is Defense/Avoidance coping?
set of psychological reactions to stress that seek to minimize it by distancing ourselves from the stress triggers
What does a person do in Defence/Avoidance Coping?
A person attempting to defensively cope is avoiding or withdrawing from the stressor, hoping that at later time the stressor will be gone or their coping will be better at a later time.
What is the goal of Defensive/Avoidance coping?
The moment you encounter a stressor you find ways to get it out of your mind. The point is not to change the stressor, it is just to mask the feelings or distract yourself so you are no longer thinking about it
What is the point of Defensive/Avoidance coping?
The moment you encounter a stressor you find ways to get it out of your mind. The point is not to change the stressor, it is just to mask the feelings or distract yourself so you are no longer thinking about it
When might defensive/avoidance coping be good?
This can be good when a a stressor will be gone on its own or if there isn’t anything you can do to change the situation
When does defensive coping backfire? What are 3 common consequences? Why?
often backfires if the stressor does not go away on its own:
substance use: a common strategy to mask physiological and psychological effects of stress, which can lead to addictive behaviours.
stress eating: high-calorie food intake can activate high-reward brain areas, leading to feelings of satisfaction during high stress situations.
lack of positive coping practices: defensive coping doesn’t allow us to discover and practice more positive coping strategies (more on this on Wednesday).
How does alcohol reduce the physiological experience of stress?
Alcohol activates the parasympathetic system so it reduces the physiological experience of stress.
What is learned helplessness?
due to prolonged stress and trauma, an agent becomes convinced that they have no control over the situation, failing to change the situation even when given an opportunity to.
What study helped demonstrate learned helplessness?
Animal shock study
What is the animal shock study?
animals tethered in a cage and repeatedly shocked will subsequently fail to jump to the safe side even when the tether is removed.
What are 3 examples of learned helplessness in humans?
School tests and exams, Nursing homes study, Depression.
How are school test/exams related to learned helplessness?
when students are given a test on which all of the hardest questions are presented first, they do more poorly on later easy questions. This is partly why students are told to skip a difficult question and keep moving
How is the Nursing homes study related to learned helplessness? What does it emphasize as mattering?
seniors in low-quality nursing homes rarely engage with novel activities, except if they are introduced under the frame of “you have influence over your lives here”.
It matters a lot how the activities are presented to them. If they are presented as “we have these new activities and you should think about the fact that you have more influence”, they engage with them more.
How is depression related to learned helplessness?
many models of depression suggest that some depressive symptoms are tied to learned helplessness in response to persistent trauma (more during Clinical)
What three stages of reasoning do memory models differentiate between? What are their definitions?
Acquisition/Encoding: the first step during which attention plays a large role in what we remember.
Consolidation: the second step during which the memory becomes more fixed in long-term storage in the brain.
Recall: the process of retrieving the memory.
How does stress interact with all three of these levels (memory)?
Acute and long-term stressors can interact with all three of these levels,
leading to variety of effects. Specifically, Acute stress can sometimes boost encoding and consolidation, but selectively
for the stressful event itself.
What is a major predictor of how well memories will be consolidated?
Sleep. If his process of consolidation, the information will be encoded but you won’t quite know what was said.
What are flashbulb memories?
vivid and specific (longterm) memories tied to specific, intense, often negative events that we experience
At what level are flashbulb memories typically studied?
We all have individual flashbulb memories but they are most often studied at a communal level. Like prominent major world events. Classic research relates to the assassination of John F. Kennedy, and 9/1. This changes for every generation.
What does acute and long term stress reduce (memory)? Why?
Reduces the ability to successfully recall information, especially when it is not directly related to the stressor itself. This is partly, because the physiological experience of stress inhibits the recall of information.
Significantly reduces short-term memory, especially under time pressure.
What is executive function involved with?
skills involved in goal-directed problem solving, including working memory, inhibitory control, and set shifting/flexibility; highly related to PFC function.
What is Executive function largely related to?
Executive functions are largely related to PFC function
What do we mean by stress and Executive function have a bidirectional relationship?
Higher EF function leads to more adaptive stress-coping strategies, reduced negative health outcomes, and reduced aggression in Type A personalities.
Acute impairs ability to multitask and inhibit impulses, most likely through effects of norepinephrine.
High cortisol levels initially improve inhibition, but in long-term decrease it.
What is true of norepinepherine and PFC function?
norepinepherine needs to be in a nice balance point for the PFC to operate optimally.
What is burnout?
a state of exhaustion, feelings of cynicism and detachment from work/school, and a sense of ineffectiveness and lack of accomplishment
Why do experiments look at stress not necessarily trauma?
There is no single point where we an say that this is stress and that is trauma. In all experimental work we are looking at stress
Are flashbulb memories permanent?
no memory is permanent but falshbulb memories are much mroe resilient to loss.
What separates burnout from other forms of stress?
it is almost exclusively studied in occupational psych, so it is usually studied as a separable concept form simple stress. When we focus on burnout we are talking about an effective of work or school as compared to the other things we have talked about.
What 3 elements are burnout comprised of?
Exhaustion: feelings of energy depletion; sometimes divided into emotional and physical. (People believe that physical and emotional exhaustion are separate.)
Cynicism: loss of belief in the long-term value of the work.
Reduced Efficacy: reduced ability to work and beliefs of inadequacy.
What are the three stages of burnout?
Recurrent stressors
Defensive coping
Individual strain
Cycle
What are 2 examples of recurrent stressors? (burnout)
especially ill-defined tasks or role ambiguity.
What are ill defined tasks?
ill defined tasks are situations in which a student is asked to do something but are not given enough info on how to do it.
What is role ambiguity?
Role ambiguity regards to confusion around who is supposed to do what.
What is defensive coping? (burnout)
if stressors are out of our control, we naturally become more cynical as a method of reducing value of our work, trying to minimize its impact.
What is individual strain? (burnout)
Individual strain emotionally and physical exhaustion and anxious, moving past the Alarm phase into the resistance phase.
What is cycle (burnout)
but if none of this helps, then the work stress continues and pushes us into the exhaustion phase, where the worst effects are felt.
What does defensive coping lead to?
increased cynicism
Besides workload, what are the 3 highest predictors of burnout?
Lack of Control: the less we can control our tasks, the more we burn out. (control in how we approach tasks)
Lack of Reward: the fewer positive rewards we get, the more we burn out.
Lack of Social Support: the fewer people around us who can support us, the more we burn out.
What 5 bnegative consequences are burnout associated with?
Job dissatisfaction, low organizational commitment, absenteeism, intention to leave the job, and turnover.
Burnout can also have a negative “spillover” effect on workers’ home life.
Exhaustion is typically correlated with such health symptoms as headaches, chronic fatigue, gastrointestinal disorders, muscle tension, hypertension, cold/flu episodes, and sleep disturbances.
Burnout correlates with depression and other emotional symptoms, such as anxiety and irritability
What are three high stress occupations?
Law enforcement, Nursing, Teaching
What has research in high-stress occupations shown about Law enforcement?
strong relationship between occupational stress (especially extremely negative events) and defensive coping, especially alcohol use; social support in discussing workplace stress and strain especially effective at reducing defensive coping.
What does occupational psych think are the highest consequences of burnout in law enforcement?
occupational psych thinks that defensive coping is the most and alcohol use is the highest.
What does occupational psych think are the highest consequences of burnout in Nursing?
main predictors of burnout are role ambiguity and role conflict (nurses are asked to pick up the slack of doctors and perform duties they aren’t train on); levels of supervisor support had protective effects on well-being.
What does occupational psych think are the highest consequences of burnout in Teaching?
exposure to high numbers of students strongly predicts the experience of burnout in university professors; younger professors experience much higher emotional exhaustion.
What are the 4 pieces of evidence surrounding burnout in university students?
Across many samples, rates of burnout are 15 – 25% of undergraduate students, with especially high rates of emotional exhaustion and cynicism.
Tends to be higher for male students, who have smaller social support networks.
Beyond academic stress, loneliness is largest predictor of burnout experience.
Defensive coping is often found to exacerbate effects of burnout.
What is post traumatic stress disorder?
a clinically diagnosable disorder characterized by recurrent and intrusive memories, dreams, flashbacks, nightmares, social withdrawal, anxiety, and insomnia that lingers for at least one month after a traumatic event.
In order for someone to develop post-traumatic stress disorder, what are the conditions on the event in question?
The event in question can either be experienced, witnessed, or learned about, and can be one-time or recurrent (e.g., first responders)
What do memories tend to be like for someone with post traumatic stress disorder?
Memories of event tend to be highly vivid, sometimes experienced in third person, and often become part of an identity for the person moving forward. They are such a fundamental part of their daily experience that they become very deeply intertwined with their personality.
What is PTSD associated with?
various changes in brain function
Where are the main sites of change in terms of PTSDs’s affect on brain function. Why/how?
Hyperactive Amygdala: the amgydala becomes hyperactive, leading to regular feelings of fear and threat that activate the HPA axis (“hypervigilance”).
Prefrontal Cortex: frequent flow of norepinephrine impairs function of PFC, leading to issues in inhibiting memories and behaviours that trigger them.
Hippocampal Volume: the hippocampus – a key brain region for long-term memory - can change in volume, leading to problems with forming new memories and sudden recall of old ones.
What are the 2 ways in which people diagnosed with PTSD are in a viscious cycle?
Memories and flashbacks trigger the stress response to resurface, sending catecholamines and cortisol back through the system without any recognizable external triggers.
This impairs everyday function, allowing them to ruminate and re-experience the events, sending further stress hormones through the body.
Does there appear to be a genetic risk factor for PTSD?
yes
What suggests that there is a genetic risk factor for PTSD
identical twins in the army are significantly more likely to experience PTSD than two random soldiers.
What are the 5 ways that stress has a significant impact on our psychological functioning?
Increases tendency for defensive coping.
Increases chance of developing learned helplessness and pessimism.
Associated with burnout
In extreme causes, traumatic events lead to PTSD
How do the impacts of stress become a self enforcing loop (coping) ?
All of these become self-reinforcing loops, where the lack of stress coping causes more stress down the line.
What constitutes the onset of stress?
primary appraisal interprets the situation as challenging + secondary appraisal judges our available resources as insufficient.
What are three ways that we can cope with stress?
Distancing ourselves from the stressor (defensive
coping)
Changing primary appraisal (i.e., situation
interpretation)
Changing secondary appraisal (i.e., adding resources).
What is another name for constructive coping?
Active coping
What is constructive/active coping?
directly deal with the stressor, either by finding a solution to the problem, or changing how we react to it.
What are the 2 types of constructive coping?
Problem-Focused Coping (External): coping by finding a solution to the problem, often by acquiring more resources or finding novel solution. (it is external coping because you are trying to change something out in the world)
Appraisal-Focused Coping/Reframing (Internal): coping by changing our perception of the stressful event as something not threatening or challenging. (internal because you are trying to change the appraisal of the situation/interperetation.
Is problem-focused or appraisal-focused coping better?
neither is strictly better.
When is problem focused coping bad?
In situations where you cannot actually do something to fix the problem. Sometimes no amount of resources/effort will deal with the stressor (i.e., problem-
focused = bad).
When is appraisal-focused coping bad?
If you can’t stop reacting to something in a certain way then you are further increasing your stress. Sometimes an event will be inherently stressful no matter how much we try to
think about it differently (i.e., appraisal-focused = bad).
When is defensive coping good?
Situations where there is little reason to waste time and effort using constructive coping. Sometimes stressors will just go away on their own (defensive = good).
What are the three ways we can increase the tendency for constructive coping?
- Increase (perceived and actual) levels of efficacy and control.
- Increase resiliency and persistence.
- Increase positive emotions.
Wha are the three best ways of defensive coping?
- Exercise
- Relaxation exercises
- Mindfulness meditation
Wha are the three best ways of defensive coping?
- Exercise
- Relaxation exercises
- Mindfulness meditation
When does constructive coping occur?
Constructive coping only occurs if you believe that you have control over your
resources or over your reaction to the event.
What was the executive rat study?
if a rat has control over when it gets shocked, it will be significantly less stressed compared to a rat shocked as often but with no control.
What was the design for the executive rat study? What were the results?
executive rat: random stressors but everytime it begins, they can do an action to stop it
Subbordinate: getting shocked at the exacy same moment as the executive rat. Their level of shock is the same. The object levels of external stress events is identical for executive and subbordinate rat.
The executive rat shows less stress levels in comparison to the subordinate rat. This shows that the experience of having control over a stressful event is sufficient to reduce stress levles even with equal amount of external stressors.
What has a strong impact on perceived stress levels?
perceived sense of control
What is the relationship stress and perceived control in humans (3 things)?
Internal locus of control: an internal locus of control is associated with higher functioning, lower neuroticism, and lower stress and anxiety. (these people believe they have more control over the world and themselves)
Medical Procedures: children given a signaling device experience significantly less stress and physiological arousal during complex operations. (that tells them, any time you experience this amount of pain push the button and I’ll stop)
It helps even when it’s false: undergraduates told that they can shorten an aversive stimulus (a loud noise) by pushing a button more times experience less stress, even when the button had no effect at all. (individuals who are tolled this experience less stress (heart rate, sweat and cortisol levels)
What are the three trait like predictors associated with higher constructive coping?
optimism, grit, high self-esteem
What is optimism?
a personality trait associated with having a positive outlook on events (as opposed to pessimism). (high optimism, more constructive coping, less HPA axis activity)
What is grit?
personality trait associated with commitment in the face of failure, a strong sense of internal control, and willingness to accept challenges.
What is high self-esteem?
High self-esteem: a positive sense of identity, capability, and efficacy.
What do the three predictors for constructive copping lead to?
more positive emotions and reduced activation of HPA axis during stress.
What are three things we should know about research on grit?
Grit tends to naturally increase with age, and heritability estimates are low, suggesting strong environmental prediction.
US Department of Education has invested resources into a “Grit Enhancement Program”, teaching skills such as reflecting on meaning of failure, mastery orientation, improved goal setting, and interest discovery.
However, no conclusive results have been found from these programs at this time.
What is positive psychology?
a subdiscipline of psychology that focuses on researching methods of improving our well-being, including especially coping with stress and finding meaning in life (“meaning-based coping”).
What are the 2 notions of well-being that positive psychology differentiates from?
hedonic well being and eudamonic well-being
What is hedonic well-being?
a sense of well-being associated with positive emotions and feeling good, and avoiding suffering and pain.
What is eudamonic well-being?
a sense of well-being associated with having a sense of purpose and meaning in life (e.g., self-actualization).
Why is most of positive psychology applied?
to increase specific skills
that relate to positive emotions:
What is positive psychology trying to find?
they are not trying to find broad theories but meanigful interventions that can be implemented in every-day lives
What is positive reappraisal?
taking a negative event and interpreting it as a positive challenge; strongly related to emotion-focused coping. (people who tend to be really good at spinning and reinterperating events)
What is goal flexibility?
not remaining fixated on the same goal, especially when one cannot meet it for factors outside of their control. (You need to know when to abandon and change your goals without feeling like a failure. )
What is attending to positivity?
participants who had their stress levels raised would return to baseline faster if watching media with positive emotions compared to fearful, angry, or sad.
What are 3 techniques that have shown to increase the skills employed by positive psychology?
Keeping a journal: keep a journal of goals and try your best to read and review it once a month; at the end of each day, try and write down some things you are thankful for.
Disreputation: actively coming up with reasons why some evidence against our self-esteem or efficacy is not indicative and should be ignored.
Counselling therapy: techniques such as motivational interviewing and unconditional positive regard significantly increase positive emotions (more in Clinical Psychology).
What is PERMA?
a popular categorical model of subjective well-being within positive psychology?
What is the PERMA acronym?
(P)ositive Emotions: general tendency towards contentment and joy (hedonic sense of wellbeing)
(E)ngagement: frequent feeling of being absorbed in activities
(R)elationships: feeling loved, supported, and cared for by others
(M)eaning: feeling a sense of direction and purpose in life (eudomonic well-being)
(A)ccomplishments: feeling of mastery and achievement in some domain
Why has there been a proliferation of paid tools for improving your well-being?
because of the moderate correlation between PERMA and well-being
What is empathy and gratitude training?
including through reading books, keeping a gratitude journal, etc.
What is the idea behind random acts of kindness?
improving social relationships with strangers. Through directly increasing well-being or indirectly increasing well-being
How does one improve concentration?
through focus training and mindfulness meditation.
Why have some people criticized PERMA?
Others have criticized PERMA for its absence of any physical well-being, for not focusing on resiliency, and for being overly broad.
In what situations does defensive coping provide significant benefits? Which practices?
In situations where constructive coping is not possible, defensive coping through exercise, relaxation, and meditation holds significant benefits in helping us dilute the physiological effects of stress.
What is aerobic exercise?
exercise that increases heart rate and oxygen intake (e.g., running, rowing, swimming, biking).
engaging in low to moderate levels of physical stress over a protracted period of time.
How much daily exercise extends your life (by how much?) and reduces your risk of cardiovascular and other health problems
On average, 20 minutes of aerobic exercise a day (around 140/week) extends your life by 2-4 years and significantly reduces the risk of cardiovascular and other health problems.
What is the relationship between aerobic exercise and stress?
Aerobic exercise also significantly reduces stress: when individuals are randomly placed into an aerobic condition their measured levels of stress (measured by cortisol) are almost half of the control group.
What is guided relaxation therapy?
a progressive series of instructions to consciously focus and then relax different body parts; most often guided by another person and it begins from the top of the head down.
