Health, HR + Intervention

Question 1

mdgs

Answer 1

-Set of targets created in 2000 by a series of international conferences and meetings between the world’s leaders. The aim was to fight poverty
-They include 8 goals - in particular to eradicate extreme poverty and promote gender equality
-Progress has been made in all 8 areas.
EXTREME POVERTY RATE - 1990 47% 2015 14%
WOMEN IN JOBS OUTSIDE AGRICULTURE - 1990 35% 2015 41%

Question 2

trade embargoes

Answer 2

• Form of geopolitical strategy
• Otherwise known as economic sanctions, they prevent a country undertaking international trade in the normal way
• By preventing exports, or banning imports, pressure is placed on the leaders of a sovereign state to change policy because their economy suffers
• e.g. EU and USA with Russia following Crimea invasion
• Also includes not selling equipment to hostile regions. E.g. USA has a sanction on the sale of weapons to Pakistan as well as countries that have violated human rights e.g. Myanmar

Question 3

human rights vary within country

Answer 3

Human rights vary widely between sovereign states, but also within them. This is particularly the case in post-colonial states that gained their independence from European colonial powers in the period 1945–80.

• Human rights had almost no role in colonial governance, so there was little history of respecting such rights
• Post-colonial governments were often weak, and in many cases authoritarian
• Post-colonial poverty led to a focus on economic growth, and basic needs, but not human rights
• Post-colonial national borders rarely reflected the geography of nations of people, meaning many

GENDER
WOMEN IN PAKISTAN = female literacy 45% compared to 70%, arranged marriage and sharia law.

ETHNICITY
BURMA - Under the 1982 Myanmar Nationality Law the Rohigya (muslim nation within country) were denied nationality meaning they had no rights and were affectively stateless.

Question 4

education enabling economic development

Answer 4

POINT 1 - EDUCATION BOOSTS HUMAN RIGHTS WHICH BOOSTS INVESTMENT

• Education boosts knowledge of human rights and equality which makes the area more attractive as an investment proposition and boosts development
• As seen with trade embargoes placed on area with HR violations (Myanmar)

POINT 2 - EDUCATION MAKES WORKFORCE HIGHER SKILLED

• Higher skilled workforce = better jobs = more money in tax generated
• For example, the country with the lowest literacy rate in the world South Sudan (27%) compared to Canada which has the highest proportion of university students in the world is also a correlation between wealth. GDP per capita in South Sudan is $237 compared to $45,453 in Canada. This trend is visible in life expectancy also with Canada’s life expectancy of 82 compared to 56 in South Sudan.

Question 5

corruption threaten hr

Answer 5

• Corrupt government puts themselves ahead of the judiciary
• Limits development aid e.g. The World Bank’s Sanctions Evaluation and Suspension Office found that between 2007 and 2012 there was 157 situations of corruption/concern worth $245 million
• Policy decisions that benefit wealthy

Question 6

hr vary between country

Answer 6

Type of government/Corruption

• Democratic governments such as UK have rights entrenched with the judiciary branch of government higher than the government and the rights also entrenched to the EU with the European Convention on Human Rights and the people have the right to vote on certain issues regarding rights if they feel it is an issue.
• Compared to a totalitarian government such as Egypt where the government acts as it wishes
• This links to government corruption in which case the government is placed ahead of the laws,judiciary and people.

Economic development vs Human Rights

• Certain governments which are less concerned with wealth commit a larger proportion of budget to ‘social progress’. E.g. Norway 6.3% on education
• A higher education budget leads to greater knowledge of rights etc.

Question 7

uk life expectancy

Answer 7

In the UK average male life expectancy is 79.5 years, but because of poverty and high unemployment it is only 75 in Blackpool and as low as 65 in some parts of Glasgow. Poverty is linked to poor diet, and higher than average levels of smoking and alcohol consumption, which in turn lead to higher levels of heart disease and diabetes, reducing life expectancy. In wealthy Dorset it is 83 years, because higher incomes mean some people can supplement NHS healthcare with private healthcare, thus improving access to health services overall and making it more likely illness is identified and treated early.

Question 8

some countries more aid than others

Answer 8

One reason for the variation in total amount of development aid given is simply that some of the economies are larger than others. For instance the USA’s economy is ten times larger than Sweden’s so the USA gives more. However, the UK gives about US$18 billion compared with Japan’s US$11 billion despite UK GDP being smaller. The amount relative to GDP size is more useful data. It suggests some countries like Sweden (1.4%) and the UK (0.7%) are more generous.

This could be because human rights, and the need for development in developing countries, are more important national priorities in some countries compared with others. Countries like Japan may have a less global outlook and don’t see the need to help other countries preferring to spend their money at home. The UK and France once had many colonies, and their higher spending could be due to a sense of guilt that they should help their ex-colonies in Africa.

Lastly, Sweden and the UK have increased their aid spending to at least 0.7% of GDP because this is an agreed UN and OECD target, dating from 1970. Other countries may disagree with the target.

Question 9

why do different countries have different understandings of development

Answer 9

Some intergovernmental organisations such as the IMF and World Trade Organization usually view development in economic terms. This is also the view held by global TNCs such as Nike and Walmart. To these organisations development is about increasing wealth and income through job creation and international trade. This is the ‘trade is the engine of growth’ model which is a neo-liberal view of progress.

Many NGOs such as Practical Action support a different view, that suggests development is more about meeting basic needs of food, water and health and providing opportunities through education and greater gender equality. NGOs and others fear that focusing on economic development risks human rights abuses such as TNC worker exploitation, and creates a widening income inequality gap. Organisations like Amnesty International specifically campaign on human rights issues which tend to discriminate against women, indigenous groups and minority ethic groups and prevent them making development progress.

The UN’s Sustainable Development Goals for 2015–30 focus on human rights, gender equality, education and environmental issues. The environmental focus recognises that wealth-driven development is likely to lead to urban air pollution, water pollution and other issues that negatively affect human wellbeing, health and life expectancy. Different groups and organisations are motivated by different things such as people versus profit, or environment versus wealth, and this effects their perspective on what ‘development’ is.

Question 10

economic growth drive human development

Answer 10

Economic growth will mean that governments have larger amounts of money available to spend on education and health.
HEALTH
-Greater availability of healthcare will improve standard and amount of available healthcare which boosts development
EDUCATION
-Increased education will mean increased knowledge of health and well-being but will also create more higher skilled workers.

For example, the country with the lowest literacy rate in the world South Sudan (27%) compared to Canada which has the highest proportion of university students in the world is also a correlation between wealth. GDP per capita in South Sudan is $237 compared to $45,453 in Canada. This trend is visible in life exp

Question 11

limitations of happy planet index

Answer 11

• An aspect of the HPI is “experienced well-being” which creates issues as it’s not a statistical or factual study but one that’s based on perception and will therefore vary.
• Secondly, the HPI does not include an economic measure which means that it’s likely a limited study
• Well-being and ecological footprint are based highly on aggregated data and not all may agree with data collected for sample. Only life expectancy is reliable data

Question 12

variations in health developed countries

Answer 12

• Spatial variations exist within developed countries such as the UK. Glasgow average life expectancy is 73 yrs compared to Dorset with 83 years. Similar difference seen between Japan and Bangladesh.
• Some areas deprived especially in post industrial cities, with high unemployment. Income are low and there are hgh levels of smoking and alcohol abuse. Low income means less can be spent on improving standards of living. Smoking and alcohol abuse decreases health as they have knock on effects such as organ failure and cancer
• Diet among poor is worse. Fast food consumption is higher as it is cheaper.
• Ethnic differences also create differences, Australians with european descent live 20 years longer than aboriginals. Aboriginals may be isolated, increased alcohol and drug abuse and poor access to healthcare

Question 13

type of government influence on education and health

Answer 13

• democratic countries are more inclined to invest in education and healthcare. This is so to appease the public that voted the government in. A capitalist, democratic is more likely to care about the opportunity, foundations of well being and basic human needs people have. This will mean increased spending on education and healthcare to improve these factors. E.g Sweden spends 7% of GDP on education where Russia only spends 4.1%
• Totalitarian states don’t want the public to be too well informed so many invest less in education

Question 14

factors affecting human well being

Answer 14

• Environmental quality - Links to health with poor air quality linking to various breathing cancers with air quality in London so bad it affects health.
• Health + life expectancy - The standard of healthcare and it’s availability affects quality of life. E.g. Aboriginal population in Australia men have a life expectancy 10.6 years below that of Australia’s national average. Also, less available in rural areas due to transportation (Brazil)
• Human rights - How well protected the rights of individuals are in international codes such as the UDHR or the ECHR which protects the rights of the individual higher than the government in charge and entrenches them.

Question 15

SDG VS MDG

Answer 15

• SDGs have replaced the MDGs since 2015 and will run until 2030. This is because they focus on basic needs but have an additional focus on sustainable development. This includes goals clean energy, decent work, sustainable cities and protecting cities and ecosystems
• Now 17 goals rather than 8 goals (e.g eradicate poverty, Universal poverty education, promote gender equality), the goals shift from closing the development gap to sustainability and environmental concern.

Question 16

factors behind variation in health developing countries

Answer 16

• Healthcare
• Sanitation
• Food and water

Question 17

china vs india

Answer 17

• Economic: China is likely to be the largest economy by 2030 and currently has a GDP of around $12 trillion, growth around 6% per year. India’s economy is $2.6 trillion in terms of GDP and growing at a similar rate. So economically India is a lot smaller
• Human Rights: China’s record of human rights is a lot worse than India’s however India isn’t perfect either. For example, China suppress the internet, hold around a million Muslims in concentration camps, account for around ¾ of deaths due to the death penalty. India, 50% of police have used torture or abuse to gain evidence. Both nations have issues with sexual abuse.

Question 18

what causes intervention

Answer 18

• ACCESSING RESOURCES - Iraq 2003
• INCREASING GLOBAL OR REGIONAL INFLUENCE (includes ideology)- China islands in South China Sea, Americanisation,
• PROMOTING INTERNATIONAL TRADE - WTO, World Bank and IMF all dominated by Western capitalist countries
• PROVIDING MILITARY SUPPORT - USA, global policeman
• PROTECTING HUMAN RIGHTS - Syria 2011 against Assad regime

Question 19

indigenous people bad health

Answer 19

RURAL GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION

• Lacking access to necessary medical care and attention.
• This is the case in Brazil where rural people or ‘tribes’ commonly live in rural coastal communities and rely on traditional forestry medical care rather than modern treatment methods. Thus, they lack the same standard of medical care.
• Estimated that life expectancy is 18 years less.
• Also, due to living in a remote location the type of work is usually heavy industry which affects health

DEPRIVATION
-They are often regarded as second-class citizens with very limited, if any, human rights. Incomers are keen to exploit the resources of the traditional lands; resources are exploited regardless of the costs to the indigenous people and their traditional way of life. Their failure to adjust to the new way of life introduced by incomers has led to social problems such as drug abuse, alcoholism and antisocial behaviour. They are marginalised and stripped of their human rights as is the case with the Aboriginal population in Australia which in the case of men have a life expectancy 10.6 years below that of Australia’s national average. Largely, this is put down to education with the aboriginal population 12% less likely to graduate school which in turn means there is high unemployment (16% vs 4%) and as a result they are poorer so can’t afford necessary healthcare. Furthemore, being poorer also means they have a lower quality of housing which affects their health.

Question 20

development aid to improve human rights

Answer 20

Development aid involves developed countries providing aid or funds each year to help them achieve certain social and economic goals. If done correctly, this can have a major positive impact on developing societies level of human rights and schemes surrounding Women’s education, Malaria and vaccinations have had positive impact upon the given societies.

Bilateral and multilateral aid has been offered to a variety of nations in an attempt to achieve one of the MDGs surrounding gender equality within education. Between 200 and 2015 over 35 billion USD have been invested into developing nations, particularly in South Asia and Western Africa, to aid the development of these basic rights. This has proven how aid can improve human rights given that the global gap between male and female primary and secondary school enrolment was eliminated by 2015.  As a result of this, more and more women are also working within politics and influencing decision making across the world, mainly due to the constant development aid poured into these developing regions that has enabled more gender equality promotion and increased access to education for women. 

Another successful development aid scheme that has increased the level of human rights within nations is the Tackling Malaria scheme, founded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, that has sent over $2billion investing into increased healthcare in developing areas and attempting to decrease the impacts of Malaria. Since 2005, new cases of the disease are down 25% and total deaths have also decreased by 42%. This increased focus on healthcare in developing nations, brought about  by the increased development aid spending, highlights the positive impacts that development aid can have on human rights once again. 

Finally, other global vaccination programmes led by the UN WHO since the 1960s have increased immunisation dramatically, therefore reducing the burden of disease upon developing nations and allowing for their human rights to prosper. Diseases such as smallpox have been eradicated In 1977, deaths by measles fell by 85% in Africa from 2000 to 2014 and furthermore the worldwide number of cases for polio have fallen by 99% since 1988. Once again, we can see the positive impacts upon the basic access to sanitation and medication that development aid has allowed for, hence demonstrating its positive impact on human rights around the world.

Question 21

development aid hr 1 of 3

Answer 21

• Thanks to the stimulus provided by the MDGs, the number of people living in extreme poverty has declined from 1.9 billion in 1990 to 836 million in 2015. However, 15% of global population still live on less than US$1.25 a day. This economic growth then drives Human Rights.
• Development aid has played a large role in aiding women’s equality. Under the umbrella of the MDGs, progress has been made in gender equality. The global gap between male and female primary and secondary school enrolment was eliminated between 2000 and 2015. Globally, more women are in work, and more involved in politics than in 2000
• Development aid has played a large role in education. E.g. Afghanistan where 66% of the country’s budget in 2018 was from international assistance and aid with the largest amount coming from the USA S$763.7-million to Afghanistan reconstruction from 2002-2018. In 2001, less than 900,000 Afghan children were in school, all of them boys. Today that number has increased more than ten-fold, and girls make up almost 38 percent—or 3.5 million—of students. According to the Ministry of Education, 9.5 million Afghan children are attending school this year, an all-time high enrollment figure. This year alone, some 1.1 million new students went to school for the first time.

Question 22

development aid health 2 of 3

Answer 22

• Global vaccination programmes, led by the UN World Health Organisation since the 1960s, immunisation has dramatically reduced the disease burden in developing countries. Smallpox was eradicated in 1977, measles deaths fell by 85% in Africa from 2000 to 2014 and worldwide polio cases have fallen by 99% since 1988
• TACKLING MALARIA, The Bill and Melinda Gates foundation, an NGO, has spent US$2 billion fighting malaria. Since 2005 new cases are down 25% and deaths down 42%. Anti-mosquito bednets, better treatment and improved insecticides have all contributed to controlling malaria and the mosquitos that carry it.

Question 23

development aid bad

Answer 23

• Some say too much aid is taken into the hands of corrupt officials and so subsequently doesn’t reach the people who need it. The World Bank’s Sanctions Evaluation and Suspension Office found that between 2007 and 2012 there was 157 situations of corruption/concern worth $245 million
• Also concerns about the countries sent to. E.g. up until 2015 UK sent a large amount of aid to India which has a booming economy
• Some from the source country sending the aid feel it could be better spent elsewhere e.g. UK budget is £12 billion and some feel could be better spent on poor people in UK.

Question 24

spending on healthcare vary country

Answer 24

Firstly, government ideology affect healthcare and education spending. Some nations such as the USA prioritise economic development and so spending is used in a manner to boost economic infrastructure. Consequently, healthcare spending is lower and largely privatised meaning large parts of the poorer community cannot afford healthcare and meaning the average life expectancy is lower with 78. Similarly, this influences education with how committed a government is to the welfare state determining how large education spending will be. For instance, Denmark spends 8.7% of its GDP on education compared to just 3.3% in Hong Kong.

Secondly, education and healthcare spending is affected by the wealth of a country. Essentially, some countries are in a state of poverty and do not have the necessary finances to afford an adequate health and education system. For example, the country with the lowest literacy rate in the world South Sudan (27%) compared to Canada which has the highest proportion of university students in the world is also a correlation between wealth. GDP per capita in South Sudan is $237 compared to $45,453 in Canada. This trend is visible in life expectancy also with Canada’s life expectancy of 82 compared to 56 in South Sudan.

Finally, religious attitudes and restrictions affect education. It’s the view of Islamic culture and Sharia Law that a women’s role is of a limited capacity involving traditional roles such as cooking and cleaning. As a result, education spending in countries which follow Sharia Law such as Saudi Arabia is low. Furthemore, lacking education means there’s a lack of suitably qualified medical staff.

Question 25

ngo’s

Answer 25

-For the most part these are charities

AMNESTY INTERNATIONAL

• 1961, has the aim and focused on the investigation and exposure of human rights abuses around the world. Takes on both governments and powerful bodies, such as major companies. It aims to ensure the UDHR is fully implemented.
• e.g. Shell Niger Delta Oil Spill were forced to pay £55 million.

HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH

• 1978, aims to name and shame governments who are non-compliant with the UDHR (similar to Amnesty International)
• ’Names and shames’ corporations who act wrongly
• e.g. Focus on women rights in Congo and women’s rape victims as a means of conflict

OXFAM

• Founded in the UK to help with hunger and starvation.
• Today it has 3 targets, development work aimed at lifting people out of poverty and improving health, assisting conflicts and campaigning on a range of issues such as women’s rights
• Thanks to the work of Oxfam campaigners, the UK became the first G8 country to keep a 43-year promise to spend 0.7% of national income on aid to the world’s poorest people.

MEDICINE SANS FRONTIERS

• Provides healthcare and healthcare training to 70 countries.
• Provided 10.6 million ‘medical consultations’ in 2017 alone.

Question 26

geneva convention

Answer 26

GENEVA CONVENTION

• A series of 4 treaties applied at times of armed conflict to protect people (including prisoners of war).
• 1st treaty was signed by 16 European countries and some American states in 1864.
• The Geneva Convention has become increasingly important with deteriorating international relations as it maintains that force used in conflict must be ‘necessary and not excessive’
• Whilst the convention is not judicial the affects for a country who violates are more of a political nature as seen with EU and USA freezing Russian bank accounts in their states following the invasion of the Crimea.

Question 27

echr

Answer 27

• Signed into UK law in 1988 with the Human Rights Act.
• Similar to the UDHR this comprises of a number of articles, coming into force in 1953 as a response to the serious violations of human rights that occurred during the 2nd world war.
• This protects human rights as violations of any article means the country is placed before the European Court of Human Rights. As seen in the landmark case of ‘Sanduz vs Turkey’ in 2008 which relates to the right to a fair trial
• The ECHR can be bypassed in certain cases though as seen with the UK and the ‘Belmarsh Case’ in relation to prisoners voting rights.

Question 28

udhr

Answer 28

• Sets out 30 universal rights. They are wide ranging, from freedom of speech and movement to education and justice. They are vital strands in what is widely recognised as constituting human development.
• It was adopted by the UN general assembly in 1945 which now has 193 members.
• The UDHR is a declaration and not a treaty. Thus, it is not legally binding, this is a concern in some cases.
• In particular ‘the right to life’ continues to be ignored with the death penalty occuring in countries such as USA and China.
• Furthermore, the promise of aid is used to justify ill use of the UDHR as seen with USA in Iraq.