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Biology > Health, Disease, Defence Mechanisms And Treatments > Flashcards

Health, Disease, Defence Mechanisms And Treatments Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

How does the skin prevent microorganisms entering the body

A

Barrier that stops microorganisms entering the body

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2
Q

How do mucous membranes stop microorganisms entering the body

A

The membranes in nose and respiratory system trap and expel microorganisms

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3
Q

How does clotting stop microorganisms entering the body

A

Closes wound quickly to form a barrier that stops microorganisms gaining entry (also prevents loss of blood)

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4
Q

What is a lymphocyte

A

A type of white blood cell that produces antibodies

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5
Q

What is an antigen

A

Distinctive marker on a microorganism that leads to the body producing specific antibodies

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6
Q

What is a antibody

A

Structure produced by lymphocytes that has a complimentary shape to antigens on a particular microorganism

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7
Q

How do antibodies produced by lymphocytes destroy microorganisms that have entered the body

A

The antibodies latch onto the antigen and immobilises the microorganisms and then stops them from spreading further in the body making it easier to destroy the microorganisms

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8
Q

What are memory lymphocytes

A

After an infection the body has produced memory lymphocytes that remain in the body for a long time- these therefore can respond quickly and produce antibodies faster if infected again by the same microorganisms

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9
Q

What does the clumping of microorganisms do

A

Stops them from spreading around the body therefore making them easier to destroy and leads to reduced symptoms in the patient

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10
Q

What happens once the microorganisms have been clumped together

A

Another type of white blood cell called phagocytes surrounds and engulfs the microorganisms and digests them, this process is called phagocytosis

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11
Q

What is the primary response

A

When an individual is infected by a disease are often ill for a few days before the antibody numbers are high enough to provide immunity

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12
Q

What is the secondary response

A

When someone has once been already infected by a disease and has produced memory lymphocytes that remain in the body for many years and therefore means they will produce antibodies very quickly to stop the individual catching the disease and a lot of the time the individual isn’t aware they have the same disease again as we may not show any symtoms

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13
Q

What is immunity

A

When antibody levels are high enough or produced quickly enough to prevent disease

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14
Q

What is active immunity

A

The type of immunity that produces antibodies to combat disease. This is slower but lasts longer than passive immunity

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15
Q

What is passive immunity

A

When you are injected with antibodies by for example a pharmacist. These are faster acting but last a shorter period of time than active immunity

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16
Q

What does passive immunity allow

A

Rapid treatment for very serious infections

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17
Q

What is a vaccination

A

The injection of dead or modified pathogens with purpose of producing antibody and memory lymphocytes in the blood for a certain disease.

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18
Q

Why might a booster vaccine be required

A

If one vaccination isn’t enough to have the sufficient amount of antibodies to be immunity level for a long period of time

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19
Q

What are two structural plant defence mechanisms to pathogens

A

Waxy cuticle- prevents microorganisms from entering the plant

Thick cell walls- protect cells by surrounding them

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20
Q

What is a chemical plant defence mechanism

A

Plants produce antimicrobial chemicals harmful to infectious microorganisms eg: mint, or poisonous chemicals that can defend against small animals eg: insects, and they discourage them the use of the plant as food

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21
Q

Who discovered the first antibiotic and when

A

Alexander Fleming discovered the first antibiotic, penicillin, in 1928

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22
Q

How did Fleming discover Pennicillin

A
  • OBSERVED the bacteria couldn’t grow near a fungus on agar jelly
    He then,
    -CONCLUDED that something (a chemical) was spreading from the fungus and killing the bacteria
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23
Q

Fleming was unable to isolate the chemical responsible for killing the bacteria, but what scientists in later years found the chemical responsible

A

Florey and chain

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24
Q

Where are the microbes that make penicillin and their drugs grown

A

In large biodigesters or fermenters that create the perfect conditions for fungal growth

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25
Q

What are the 3 stages of making new medicines and drugs

A

Preclinical trials stage 1 (vitro testing)

Preclinical trails stage 2 (animal testing)

Clinical trails

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26
Q

What happens in preclinical trails stage 1

A

Testing on living cells and tissues in a laboratory

Initial trial and error process

Drugs are tested to see if they’re effective and that it doesn’t harm living cells

Allows testing before use on living organisms

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27
Q

What happens in preclinical trials stage 2

A

Testing on animals to check how they work on the whole organism

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28
Q

What are the benefits of preclinical testing stage 2

A
  • avoids testing on humans

-can check for side effects in living organisms

29
Q

What are the disadvantages of preclinical testing stage 2

A
  • animals are different to humans so the drug may affect the animal differently when used in humans

-raises ethical issues

30
Q

What do clinical trials involve

A

Testing on a small number of healthy human volunteers and then patients

31
Q

What are clinical trials used to find out

A
  • how effective the drug is at doing what it’s meant to do and finding the optimum dosage
  • find the side effects of the drug if any
32
Q

Why do new medicines have to be peer reviewed

A

Peer review is when other scientists of at least an equal standing the investigator scrutinise the new research and then provide detailed feedback and suggest refinements where appropriate to make sure the new drug is validated

33
Q

What is a antibiotic

A

A chemical produced by fungi that kills bacteria

34
Q

How can antibiotics be resisted

A
  • some bacteria can mutate meaning their DNA changes and the bacteria develop new properties causing them to become resistant to antibiotics and therefore the antibiotics won’t work against this particular bacteria
35
Q

What is a super bug

A

A bacterium that is resistant to most antibiotics, for example MRSA, superbugs are major problems in hospitals

36
Q

What procedures can take place to reduce the incidence of superbugs

A
  • don’t overuse antibiotics when not needed (eg: against viral diseases as antibiotics don’t help viruses)

-increase hygiene measures in hospitals eg: staff and visitors wash hands or use hand gels regularly

-isolating patients infected with superbugs

37
Q

What is the aseptic technique used for

A

When working in the lab with bacteria and fungi it’s important to avoid contamination of the cultures used and the growth of unwanted pathogenic microorganisms

38
Q

What’s the method when using the aseptic technique when transferring microorganisms

A

-pass a metal loop through flame of Bunsen burner

-allow loop to cool

  • inoculation the microbes in the culture bottle (remove lid of culture bottle and glide loop on the surface of agar)
  • replace the lid of the culture bottle to prevent contamination, when doing this sweep the neck or the bottle through the flame to kill any airborne microorganisms

-spread microbes over the surface of the agar in Petri dish by gently gliding the metal loop over the agars surface. Only open the Petri dish lid at an angle as it’s less likely for unwanted microbes to enter from the air

  • the metal loop can then be heated again at a high temp to kill any microorganisms remaining on the loop are destroyed
  • Petri dish should then be taped and then incubated in a oven at 25 degrees
  • when carrying out the transfer ensure a Bunsen burner is close to where you are working as it provides a upward current or air that carries unwanted microbes in the air away thus avoiding contamination
  • when the investigation is complete clean all work surfaces and hands and safely dispose of bacteria cultures by following your teachers instructions. Autoclaving will sterilise glass Petri dishes and culture bottles
39
Q

What are non communicable diseases normally a consequence of

A

Inheriting a combination of genes that predispose us to developing some conditions like cancer or due to lifestyle factors or a combination of both

40
Q

Why would poor diet effect our health

A

Too much sugar and saturated fat can lead to obesity

41
Q

Why might lack of exercise effect out health

A

Less energy being used that taken in, leads to obesity

42
Q

Why might overexposure of sun effect our health

A

UV radiation can cause mutations, leading to skin cancer

43
Q

Alcohol can also effect our health why

A

Binge drinking leads to damage to the liver and affects foetal development during pregnancy

44
Q

Smoking can also damage health, what substances in cigarette smoke harms us

A

Tar
Nicotine
Carbon monoxide

45
Q

Why is tar harmful

A

Causes bronchitis (narrowing bronchi and bronchioles I’m lungs), emphysema (damage to alveoli, reducing SA for gas exchange) and lung cancer

46
Q

Why is nicotine harmful

A

Addictive and affects heart rate

47
Q

Why is carbon monoxide harmful

A

Combines with red blood cells to reduce the oxygen carrying capacity of blood

48
Q

What are coronary arteries

A

Blood vessels that bring blood to heart

49
Q

How does heart attack occur

A

-build up of cholesterol cause coronary artery to narrow

-causes blockage or clot

-blood carrying oxygen and glucose can therefore not reach heart muscle in affected areas

-heart can’t respire or produce energy, therefore muscle cells die and can’t contract causing heart attack

50
Q

How does a stroke occur

A

Same as a heart attack except it’s blood vessels leading to the brain being blocked

51
Q

Lifestyle factors that contribute to CVD

A

excess dietary fats

Smoking

Lack of exercise

Stress

52
Q

Ways to treat CVD

A

Angioplasty and stents

Drugs such as statins and aspirin

53
Q

What is angioplasty and stents

A

Angioplasty is a Medical technique involving the use of a balloon-like structures in to hold open diseased arteries so that stents (small like mesh structures) can be inserted in to keep blood vessels open.

54
Q

What does statins do

A

Help reduce blood cholesterol

55
Q

What does aspirin do

A

Thin blood to make it less sticky

56
Q

What is cancer

A

Uncontrolled cell divisim

57
Q

What is a benign cancer tumour

A

One that doesn’t spread through the body and often have a distinct boundary

58
Q

What is a malignant cancer tumour

A

These can spread in the body

59
Q

How to protect skin from over exposure to the sun

A

Cover up

Use high factor sun screen

Avoid sun at hottest part of day

60
Q

Why shouldn’t u smoke to prevent cancer

A

As tar causes lung cancer

61
Q

Why should u get a HPV vaccine in order to not get cancer

A

HPV virus is linked to cervical cancer so you must get a vaccine

62
Q

What are screenings

A

Programmes designed to detect cancer at the earliest stage before cancer becomes malignant and spreads. Increases chances of treatment being successful

63
Q

3 methods of removing cancer

A

Surgery (physically removing tumour)

Radiotherapy (using X-rays or other radiation to kill cancer cells)

Chemotherapy (use drugs to kill cancer cells)

64
Q

Advantages and disadvantages of surgery to remove cancer

A

Adv: few side effects

Dis: won’t work if cancer has spread or in inaccessible parts of body

65
Q

Advantages and disadvantages of radiotherapy

A

Adv: can target cancer sites deep in body accurately

Dis: will damage healthy cells as well as cancer cells

66
Q

Advantages and disadvantages of chemotherapy

A

Adv: can target cancer anywhere in body

Dis: “Broad brush” approach with significant side effects eg: nausea and hair loss

67
Q

What is immunotherapy

A

A more recent cancer treatment, antibodies are injected into patient. Antibodies attach to cancer cells to help body’s immune system destroy cancer cells. It has fewer side effects than other forms of treatment

68
Q

NHS cost of economic factors when treating diseases

A

Long stays means long stays in hospital giving them hospitality and food etc etc and expensive drugs and medicines may have to be used and highly trained specialist staff are required who require a salary of standard.

Biology (2 decks)

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