Health, Disease, Defence Mechanisms And Treatments

Question 1

How does the skin prevent microorganisms entering the body

Answer 1

Barrier that stops microorganisms entering the body

Question 2

How do mucous membranes stop microorganisms entering the body

Answer 2

The membranes in nose and respiratory system trap and expel microorganisms

Question 3

How does clotting stop microorganisms entering the body

Answer 3

Closes wound quickly to form a barrier that stops microorganisms gaining entry (also prevents loss of blood)

Question 4

What is a lymphocyte

Answer 4

A type of white blood cell that produces antibodies

Question 5

What is an antigen

Answer 5

Distinctive marker on a microorganism that leads to the body producing specific antibodies

Question 6

What is a antibody

Answer 6

Structure produced by lymphocytes that has a complimentary shape to antigens on a particular microorganism

Question 7

How do antibodies produced by lymphocytes destroy microorganisms that have entered the body

Answer 7

The antibodies latch onto the antigen and immobilises the microorganisms and then stops them from spreading further in the body making it easier to destroy the microorganisms

Question 8

What are memory lymphocytes

Answer 8

After an infection the body has produced memory lymphocytes that remain in the body for a long time- these therefore can respond quickly and produce antibodies faster if infected again by the same microorganisms

Question 9

What does the clumping of microorganisms do

Answer 9

Stops them from spreading around the body therefore making them easier to destroy and leads to reduced symptoms in the patient

Question 10

What happens once the microorganisms have been clumped together

Answer 10

Another type of white blood cell called phagocytes surrounds and engulfs the microorganisms and digests them, this process is called phagocytosis

Question 11

What is the primary response

Answer 11

When an individual is infected by a disease are often ill for a few days before the antibody numbers are high enough to provide immunity

Question 12

What is the secondary response

Answer 12

When someone has once been already infected by a disease and has produced memory lymphocytes that remain in the body for many years and therefore means they will produce antibodies very quickly to stop the individual catching the disease and a lot of the time the individual isn’t aware they have the same disease again as we may not show any symtoms

Question 13

What is immunity

Answer 13

When antibody levels are high enough or produced quickly enough to prevent disease

Question 14

What is active immunity

Answer 14

The type of immunity that produces antibodies to combat disease. This is slower but lasts longer than passive immunity

Question 15

What is passive immunity

Answer 15

When you are injected with antibodies by for example a pharmacist. These are faster acting but last a shorter period of time than active immunity

Question 16

What does passive immunity allow

Answer 16

Rapid treatment for very serious infections

Question 17

What is a vaccination

Answer 17

The injection of dead or modified pathogens with purpose of producing antibody and memory lymphocytes in the blood for a certain disease.

Question 18

Why might a booster vaccine be required

Answer 18

If one vaccination isn’t enough to have the sufficient amount of antibodies to be immunity level for a long period of time

Question 19

What are two structural plant defence mechanisms to pathogens

Answer 19

Waxy cuticle- prevents microorganisms from entering the plant

Thick cell walls- protect cells by surrounding them

Question 20

What is a chemical plant defence mechanism

Answer 20

Plants produce antimicrobial chemicals harmful to infectious microorganisms eg: mint, or poisonous chemicals that can defend against small animals eg: insects, and they discourage them the use of the plant as food

Question 21

Who discovered the first antibiotic and when

Answer 21

Alexander Fleming discovered the first antibiotic, penicillin, in 1928

Question 22

How did Fleming discover Pennicillin

Answer 22

• OBSERVED the bacteria couldn’t grow near a fungus on agar jelly
  He then,
  -CONCLUDED that something (a chemical) was spreading from the fungus and killing the bacteria

Question 23

Fleming was unable to isolate the chemical responsible for killing the bacteria, but what scientists in later years found the chemical responsible

Answer 23

Florey and chain

Question 24

Where are the microbes that make penicillin and their drugs grown

Answer 24

In large biodigesters or fermenters that create the perfect conditions for fungal growth

Question 25

What are the 3 stages of making new medicines and drugs

Answer 25

Preclinical trials stage 1 (vitro testing) Preclinical trails stage 2 (animal testing) Clinical trails

Question 26

What happens in preclinical trails stage 1

Answer 26

Testing on living cells and tissues in a laboratory Initial trial and error process Drugs are tested to see if they’re effective and that it doesn’t harm living cells Allows testing before use on living organisms

Question 27

What happens in preclinical trials stage 2

Answer 27

Testing on animals to check how they work on the whole organism

Question 28

What are the benefits of preclinical testing stage 2

Answer 28

- avoids testing on humans -can check for side effects in living organisms

Question 29

What are the disadvantages of preclinical testing stage 2

Answer 29

- animals are different to humans so the drug may affect the animal differently when used in humans -raises ethical issues

Question 30

What do clinical trials involve

Answer 30

Testing on a small number of healthy human volunteers and then patients

Question 31

What are clinical trials used to find out

Answer 31

- how effective the drug is at doing what it’s meant to do and finding the optimum dosage - find the side effects of the drug if any

Question 32

Why do new medicines have to be peer reviewed

Answer 32

Peer review is when other scientists of at least an equal standing the investigator scrutinise the new research and then provide detailed feedback and suggest refinements where appropriate to make sure the new drug is validated

Question 33

What is a antibiotic

Answer 33

A chemical produced by fungi that kills bacteria

Question 34

How can antibiotics be resisted

Answer 34

- some bacteria can mutate meaning their DNA changes and the bacteria develop new properties causing them to become resistant to antibiotics and therefore the antibiotics won’t work against this particular bacteria

Question 35

What is a super bug

Answer 35

A bacterium that is resistant to most antibiotics, for example MRSA, superbugs are major problems in hospitals

Question 36

What procedures can take place to reduce the incidence of superbugs

Answer 36

- don’t overuse antibiotics when not needed (eg: against viral diseases as antibiotics don’t help viruses) -increase hygiene measures in hospitals eg: staff and visitors wash hands or use hand gels regularly -isolating patients infected with superbugs

Question 37

What is the aseptic technique used for

Answer 37

When working in the lab with bacteria and fungi it’s important to avoid contamination of the cultures used and the growth of unwanted pathogenic microorganisms

Question 38

What’s the method when using the aseptic technique when transferring microorganisms

Answer 38

-pass a metal loop through flame of Bunsen burner -allow loop to cool - inoculation the microbes in the culture bottle (remove lid of culture bottle and glide loop on the surface of agar) - replace the lid of the culture bottle to prevent contamination, when doing this sweep the neck or the bottle through the flame to kill any airborne microorganisms -spread microbes over the surface of the agar in Petri dish by gently gliding the metal loop over the agars surface. Only open the Petri dish lid at an angle as it’s less likely for unwanted microbes to enter from the air - the metal loop can then be heated again at a high temp to kill any microorganisms remaining on the loop are destroyed - Petri dish should then be taped and then incubated in a oven at 25 degrees - when carrying out the transfer ensure a Bunsen burner is close to where you are working as it provides a upward current or air that carries unwanted microbes in the air away thus avoiding contamination - when the investigation is complete clean all work surfaces and hands and safely dispose of bacteria cultures by following your teachers instructions. Autoclaving will sterilise glass Petri dishes and culture bottles

Question 39

What are non communicable diseases normally a consequence of

Answer 39

Inheriting a combination of genes that predispose us to developing some conditions like cancer or due to lifestyle factors or a combination of both

Question 40

Why would poor diet effect our health

Answer 40

Too much sugar and saturated fat can lead to obesity

Question 41

Why might lack of exercise effect out health

Answer 41

Less energy being used that taken in, leads to obesity

Question 42

Why might overexposure of sun effect our health

Answer 42

UV radiation can cause mutations, leading to skin cancer

Question 43

Alcohol can also effect our health why

Answer 43

Binge drinking leads to damage to the liver and affects foetal development during pregnancy

Question 44

Smoking can also damage health, what substances in cigarette smoke harms us

Answer 44

Tar Nicotine Carbon monoxide

Question 45

Why is tar harmful

Answer 45

Causes bronchitis (narrowing bronchi and bronchioles I’m lungs), emphysema (damage to alveoli, reducing SA for gas exchange) and lung cancer

Question 46

Why is nicotine harmful

Answer 46

Addictive and affects heart rate

Question 47

Why is carbon monoxide harmful

Answer 47

Combines with red blood cells to reduce the oxygen carrying capacity of blood

Question 48

What are coronary arteries

Answer 48

Blood vessels that bring blood to heart

Question 49

How does heart attack occur

Answer 49

-build up of cholesterol cause coronary artery to narrow -causes blockage or clot -blood carrying oxygen and glucose can therefore not reach heart muscle in affected areas -heart can’t respire or produce energy, therefore muscle cells die and can’t contract causing heart attack

Question 50

How does a stroke occur

Answer 50

Same as a heart attack except it’s blood vessels leading to the brain being blocked

Question 51

Lifestyle factors that contribute to CVD

Answer 51

excess dietary fats Smoking Lack of exercise Stress

Question 52

Ways to treat CVD

Answer 52

Angioplasty and stents Drugs such as statins and aspirin

Question 53

What is angioplasty and stents

Answer 53

Angioplasty is a Medical technique involving the use of a balloon-like structures in to hold open diseased arteries so that stents (small like mesh structures) can be inserted in to keep blood vessels open.

Question 54

What does statins do

Answer 54

Help reduce blood cholesterol

Question 55

What does aspirin do

Answer 55

Thin blood to make it less sticky

Question 56

What is cancer

Answer 56

Uncontrolled cell divisim

Question 57

What is a benign cancer tumour

Answer 57

One that doesn’t spread through the body and often have a distinct boundary

Question 58

What is a malignant cancer tumour

Answer 58

These can spread in the body

Question 59

How to protect skin from over exposure to the sun

Answer 59

Cover up Use high factor sun screen Avoid sun at hottest part of day

Question 60

Why shouldn’t u smoke to prevent cancer

Answer 60

As tar causes lung cancer

Question 61

Why should u get a HPV vaccine in order to not get cancer

Answer 61

HPV virus is linked to cervical cancer so you must get a vaccine

Question 62

What are screenings

Answer 62

Programmes designed to detect cancer at the earliest stage before cancer becomes malignant and spreads. Increases chances of treatment being successful

Question 63

3 methods of removing cancer

Answer 63

Surgery (physically removing tumour) Radiotherapy (using X-rays or other radiation to kill cancer cells) Chemotherapy (use drugs to kill cancer cells)

Question 64

Advantages and disadvantages of surgery to remove cancer

Answer 64

Adv: few side effects Dis: won’t work if cancer has spread or in inaccessible parts of body

Question 65

Advantages and disadvantages of radiotherapy

Answer 65

Adv: can target cancer sites deep in body accurately Dis: will damage healthy cells as well as cancer cells

Question 66

Advantages and disadvantages of chemotherapy

Answer 66

Adv: can target cancer anywhere in body Dis: “Broad brush” approach with significant side effects eg: nausea and hair loss

Question 67

What is immunotherapy

Answer 67

A more recent cancer treatment, antibodies are injected into patient. Antibodies attach to cancer cells to help body’s immune system destroy cancer cells. It has fewer side effects than other forms of treatment

Question 68

NHS cost of economic factors when treating diseases

Answer 68

Long stays means long stays in hospital giving them hospitality and food etc etc and expensive drugs and medicines may have to be used and highly trained specialist staff are required who require a salary of standard.