Health And Disease Flashcards
What is health
State of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absences of disease or infirmity
What is disease
Any harmful deviation from the normal structural or functional state of an organism, generally associated with certain symptoms and differing in nature from physical injury
What is homeostasis
Regulation of the body’s internal environment to an approximately constant state
Examples in human body of homeostasis
Temperature
pH
Blood pressure
Heart rate
Blood sugar
Ion balance
Why is homeostasis important
• biochemical reactions take place at optimum temperature and pH
• mass conservation
Classifications of disease
Temporal
Aetiology
Anatomical
Morphological/structural
Temporal classification of disease
Acute or chronic
Aetiology classification of disease
Cause
Eg infectious, autoimmune, genetic
Anatomical classification of disease
Cardiovascular, neurological etc
Morphological classification of disease
Eg tumour, cyst, Electron Transport Chain
What is pathophysiology
Study of structural and functional changes in cells, tissues and organs during disease
What is pharmacology
Study of the uses, effects and modes of action of drugs
Link between pathophysiology and pharmacology
Drugs are designed to counteract the underlying physiological disruptions involved in disease
Whats the importance of pharmacology in disease management
Important in the discovery of new, safer medicines to treat disease
How does understanding health and disease improve patient care
Pharmacists can:
Promote use of healthcare services
Improve medication adherence
Highlight lifestyle choices
Provide more effective communication
What is public health
All organised matters to prevent disease, promote health, and prolong life among the population as a whole
What do most people in the uk die from?
Cardiovascular disease and cancer
What is the leading cause of death for ages 20-34
Self harm
What diseases is most commonly lived with in the uk
Mental health illnesses
Musculoskeletal disorders
Chronic respiratory disease
Dementia
Cancer
Cardiovascular disease
What is multi-morbidity
Living with more than 1 long term health condition
How to prevent clusters of disease
Dealing with common risk factors
What are the three domains of public health
Health promotion
Health protection
Health care public health
What does health promotion entail
Enabling people to improve their health
What does health protection entail
Preventing harms such as infectious disease
What does health care public health entail
Improve the quality of health services
Pharmacists involvement in health promotion
Promote healthy lifestyles
Pharmacists involvement in health protection
Medication review and de prescribing
Prevention and control of I.D
Drug and alcohol services
Occupational health
Pharmacists involvement in healthcare public health
Evidence-based practice
What are prokaryotes
Singe celled organism which lack membranous structures
What are eukaryotes
Single or multicellular organisms with a membrane-bound nucleus and other membrane-bound structures
What classification of cells do humans have
Eukaryotic
What does cytoplasm contain
• Contains cell organelles and cytosol
• Fluid in everything in the cell except for the nucleus
What is the cytosol
• Fluid surrounding the organelles
• largest intracellular fluid compartment
What is the central dogma
the idea that information flows in one direction in cells, from DNA to RNA to protein
Function of the nucleus
Storage and transmission of genetic information to the next generation of cells
How many chromosomes humans have
46
What is chromatin
Fine network of threads of DNA
What happens to chromatin during cell division
Becomes tightly condensed to form chromosomes
What is the nuclear envelope composed of
2 membranes and nuclear pores at regular intervals
What moves through the nuclear pores?
• RNA
• some proteins which modulate the expression of various genes in DNA move into the nucleus
Structure of rough ER
• ribosomes bound to its cytosolic surface
• flattened-sac appearance
Role of rough ER
Involved in packaging proteins to send to Golgi apparatus
Structure of smooth ER
• no ribosomal particles on its surface
• branched, tubular structure
Role of smooth ER
• site of lipid molecule synthesis
• detoxification of certain hydrophobic molecules such as foreign materials eg drugs, environmental pollutants
• releases Ca2+
Role of ribosomes
Site of translation
Site of ribosomes
• free in cytoplasm
• attached to the rough ER
Structure of Golgi apparatus
Series of closely apposed, flattened membranous sacs
Function of Golgi apparatus
Sorts modified proteins into discrete classes of transport vesicles
General structure of mitochondria
Spherical, elongated, rodlike structure
Function of mitochondria
Site of ATP synthesis by cellular respiration
Lysosomes structure
Spherical organelles surrounded by a single membrane
The fluid within is acidic and contains digestive enzymes
Functions of lysosomes
• breakdown bacteria and debris from dead cells that have been engulfed by a cell
• breakdown damaged organelles
What kind of cells are lysosomes important in
Cells which make up the defence systems of the body
Structure of peroxisomes
Moderately dense oval bodies which are enclosed by a single membrane
Function of peroxisomes
• consume molecular oxygen and performs reactions that remove hydrogen from organic molecules including lipids, alcohols and toxic ingested materials
• detoxify hydrogen peroxide produced by this reaction
Is cytoskeleton an organelle
No
It is a filamentous network contained in the cytoplasm
What kind of processes is the cytoskeleton associated with
Maintain and change cell shape and produce cell movement
Actin filament diameter
7nm
Actin filament formation
G-actin assembles into a polymer of 2 twisting chains to form F-actin which makes up a major portion of the cytoskeleton in all cells
Role of actin filament
Cell shape, amoeboid-like movement, cell division and muscle cell contraction
Diameter of intermediate filament
10 nm
Structure of intermediate filament
Twisted strands of several different proteins including keratin, desmin, lumin
Role of intermediate filament
Cell shape, anchoring the nucleus, providing strength to cells
Diameter of microtubule
25 nm
Structure of microtubule
Hollow tubules
Most rigid type of cytoskeleton
Microtubule
Function of microtubules
Present in long processes of neurones, important during cell division
Are cilia organelles
No
Hairlike extensions on surfaces of most cells
Function of motile cilia
Help propel contents of organ along surface of epithelium
Function of nonmotile cilia
Important in sensory structures
What are flagella
Lash-like appendage that protrudes from the cell body
Full of mitochondria
Example of human cells with a flagella
Spermatozoa
Roughly how much blood does the average human have
5 Litres
What is plasma
Blood without cell components
What is serum
Plasma without clotting factors and fibrinogen
What is osmolality definition
Concentration of al chemical particles found in the fluid part of blood
What is the osmolality of blood
285-295 mOsm
What is the pH range of blood
7.35-7.45
What is blood used to do
Transport
Regulation
Protection
What does blood transport
Oxygen
Carbon dioxide
Nutrients
Excretory products
How does blood help with regulation
• delivers hormones to target sites
• diverts blood in homeostasis
• regulates temperature
How is blood involved in protection
• role of leukocytes in infection
• clotting mechanism to prevent blood loss
What allows for a rapid assessment of blood composition
Hematocrit
Where are blood cells generated
Bone marrow
What kind of stem cells are blood cells derived from
Hematopoietic
What are hematopoietic stem cells
Undifferentiated cells capable of producing the precursors of different blood cells
What are thrombocytes
Platelets
How are platelets formed
Bone marrow then myeloid progenitor cell then megakaryocytic cell undergoes fragmentation to platelets
Shape of platelet
Discoid fragment
What is thrombopoietin
Hormone mainly produced by liver that stimulates platelet production
How does thrombopoietin regulate platelet production in the blood
Binds to platelets in the circulation
• normal platelet count - TPO level is low
• low platelet count - TPO level is high therefore platelet production is stimulated
How are platelets involved in hemostasis
• formation of platelet plug
• blood coagulation
What is hemostasis
Initial response is vasoconstriction and the sticking together of the opposed endothelial surfaces and is then followed by the formation of platelet plug and blood clotting
What does a platelet plug do
Completely seal small areas of damage to blood vessels
Main steps of platelet plug formation
- Platelet adhesion
- Platelet activation
- Platelet aggregation
What happens during platelet adhesion
• platelets adhere to collagen fibres which are exposed due to damage of endothelial cell layer which exposes the sub-endothelial layer and connective tissue collagen fibres
• adhere via von Willebrand factor
What are von Willebrand factor proteins?
Plasma protein secreted by endothelial cells and platelets which bind to exposed collagen molecules, changes its conformation, and becomes able to bind platelets
What triggers platelet activation?
vWF forms a bridge between damaged blood vessels and circulatory platelets
What does platelet activation lead to
• shape change
• activation of fibrinogen receptor
• release of electron dense granules such as ADP and serotonin
What is a fibrinogen receptor
Adhesive receptor which bridges 2 platelets together using fibrinogen proteins which circulate in the blood
What do electron dense granules do during platelet activation
Act locally to induce multiple changes in the metabolism, shape and surface proteins of platelets
What happens during platelet aggregation
• positive feedback loop between new platelets adhering to new ones which rapidly induces them to synthesise thromboxane A2 which acts locally to further stimulate platelet aggregation and release of secretory vesicle content
• fibrinogen forms bridges between activated platelets by binding to the activated fibrinogen receptor which forms the platelet plug
• activated platelets release chemical mediators which triggers vasoconstriction
What is blood coagulation
Transformation of blood into a solid gel called a clot/thrombus
What does a clot/thrombus mainly consist of
A protein polymer called fibrin
Where does blood coagulation occur
Locally around the platelet plug
What is the dominant hemastatic defenve
Blood coagulation
Function of blood coagulation
• Support and reinforce the platelet plug
• solidify blood that remains in the wound channel
What do erythrocytes
• transport
• contain
• shape (why)
• oxygen and carbon dioxide
• haemoglobin
• biconcave (high surface area to volume ratio)
What is erythropoiesis
Production of erythrocytes
Where does erythropoiesis occur
Bone marrow
What hormone controls erythropoiesis
Erythropoietin (EPO)
Erythropoietin
• produced by
• controlled by
• kidney
• oxygen delivery to the kidney
What will trigger erythropoietin production, examples
Decreased oxygen levels
Due to high altitude, lung disease, insufficient pumping of the heart, anaemia
What are granulocytes
Densely stained granules in the cytoplasm which help the body fight bacterial infections
What is a neutrophil
Phagocytic cells which are an important component of innate immunity
What is eosinophils
Type of granulocyte which is important in the defence to parasitic infections
What are basophil cells
Circulating immune cells which contain histamine, pathogenesis of allergic reactions, inflammation
3 kinds of granulocytes
Neutrophil
Eosinophil
Basophil
Monocytes
• what
• nucleus shape
• differentiate into
• largest blood cells which contain fine granules
• irregular, lobed nucleus
• differentiate into macrophages
Macrophages
• involved in what kind of immunity
• what do they do
• innate immunity
• involved in the detection, phagocytosis and destruction of bacteria and present antigens to T cells and trigger inflammation by releasing cytokines
Two kinds of lymphocytes
T and B
What are B and plasma cells involved in
Antibody production
What are T helper cells involved in
Regulate antibody production, regulate and mediate immune response
Function of natural killer cells
Lyse target cells
What are monosaccharides in terms of organic chemistry
Hydroxylated aldehydes and ketones
Which monosaccharides are most important
5 and 6-carbon
How are disaccharides formed
Linking monosaccharides together with a glycosidic bond through a condensation reaction
What kind of molecule is glycogen
Storage polysaccharide
Is glycogen branched
Highly
Branch at alpha-1,6-bonds
Major monosaccharide found in the blood
Glucose
What does glycogen act as a resevoir of?
Energy that is stored in the chemical bonds within individual glucose monomers
Use of sugar in cells
Used as an extracellular matrix
Used for glycosylation
What does sugar do as an extracellular matrix
• acts as a scaffold for cell attachment
• transmits information to cells growing, differentiating and migrating
What happens during glycolysation
Addition of sugar to other biological molecules to form glycoproteins and glycolipids
Main roles of lipids
• major component of the cell membranes
• valuable source of energy
• important signalling molecules
4 types of lipids
• steroids
• fatty acids
• triglycerides
• phospholipids
