Hazards Flashcards
Define ‘aseismic buildings’
buildings designed to withstand or minimise destruction during an earthquake
define ‘asthenosphere’
the upper mantle layer of the earth
it is semi-molten and approximately 2000km wide
define ‘ash’
fine particles and dust ejected during an eruption, which can remain airborne as clouds or accumulate on the ground
define ‘continental crust’
crust that forms the continents of the lithosphere, on average 35km thick
define ‘continental drift’
the movement of tectonic plates, due to varying weights of crust. it was originally thought that convection currents caused the movement of the plates, but now slab pull is thought of as the primary driving force.
define ‘controlled burning’
intentionally burning vegetation with the aim of reducing fuel available for a wildfire and disrupting the fire’s path
define ‘convection current’
the circulation of magma within the mantle (asthenosphere). magma is heated by radioactive processes in the core and cools at the surface, and so circulates between the two places.
define ‘coriolis effect’
the earth’s spin affects the movement of air masses and winds, depending on a location’s latitude
define ‘crown fires’
wildfires that burn the entirety of a tree (from top to bottom), often the most destructive and dangerous type of wildfire
define ‘epicentre’
the point on the surface, directly above the earthquake’s origin
define ‘fatalism’
the belief that hazards are uncontrollable, so any losses should be accepted and mitigation is unnecessary
define ‘fire breaks’
the felling of trees and clearing vegetation to create a gap to disrupt a wildfire’s path
define ‘focus’
the place in the crust where the pressure/ seismic energy is released
define ‘ground fires’
wildfires that burn through the peat and vegetation beneath the surface, making them slow but difficult to extinguish
define ‘hazard management cycle’
the sequence of governance of a natural hazard: preparedness, response, recovery, and mitigation.
define ‘hot spot’
volcanoes found away from the plate boundary, due to a magma plume closer to the surface
define ‘lahar’
a flow of mud and debris
define ‘lithosphere’
the upper crust of the earth (average thickness = 100km)
define ‘love waves’
a surface earthquake wave with horizontal displacement
define ‘mid-ocean ridge’
parting oceanic plates at a constructive plate boundary creates a ridge, with new land at the base of the oceanic valley
define ‘oceanic crust’
crust, usually thinner than continental crust, that forms the sea floor
it is on average 7km thick
define ‘park’s model’
a model describing the decline and recovery of a country over time, following a natural disaster
define ‘partial melting’
elements within the lithosphere have different melting points, and so rock is partially melted, partially solid
define ‘primary waves’
an earthquake wave causing compressions within the body rock
define ‘pyroclastic flow’
a mixture of gases and rock fragments, at high temperatures travelling at rapid speeds
define ‘rayleigh waves’
a surface earthquake wave causing both horizontal and vertical displacement
define ‘richter scale’
a logarithmic measure of earthquake’s intensity
define ‘secondary waves’
an earthquake wave causing vertical displacement within the body of rock
define ‘seismic waves’
the energy released during an earthquake, in the form of primary, secondary, love and rayleigh waves
define ‘slab pull’
the force contributing to the movement of tectonic plates
slab pull is due to the weight of the plate
define ‘subduction’
oceanic plate is forced below continental plate, due to the oceanic plates being more dense than the continental plate
define ‘surface fires’
wildfires that only burn the leaf litter, and so are the easiest kind to extinguish
define ‘tephra’
fragments of rock injected into the air by an erupting volcano
define ‘tropical storm’
a low pressure system of spiralling winds (due to the coriolis effect)
also called hurricanes, cyclones, and typhoons depending on the location they occur in
define ‘tsunami’
initial vertical water displacement (often from a submarine earthquake) creates waves, with large destructive power
define ‘volcanic explosively index (VEI)’
a measure of the magnitude of a volcano’s eruptions
define ‘volcanic island arc’
a series of volcanoes (often in the shape of an arc) that are formed consecutively, as a tectonic plates moves across a magma plume closer
define ‘wildfire’
a large, uncontrolled fire that quickly spreads through vegetation.
when did hurricane katrina hit the usa?
29th august 2005
when hurricane katrina hit, what category was it?
category 3
what was the wind speed when hurricane katrina hit?
200km/h
how tall was the hurricane katrina storm surge in mississippi?
8.5m
where was the largest impact of hurricane katrina?
louisiana and mississippi, specifically new orleans
what percentage of new orleans flooded after the storm surge?
over 80%
how many people were killed in hurricane katrina?
1,836
how many houses were destroyed in hurricane katrina?
300,000
how many people were left without electricity after hurricane katrina?
3,000,000
how many people died after hurricane katrina from contaminated water?
five
how was education disrupted after hurricane katrina?
18 schools were destroyed and 74 were badly damaged
how many jobs were lost after hurricane katrina?
230,000 from damaged businesses
how was industry disrupted after hurricane katrina?
- 30 oil platforms in the gulf of mexico were damaged or destroyed, disrupting the oil industry
- ports such as gulfport in mississippi were damaged, affecting the shipping industry
how much forest was destroyed after hurricane katrina?
5,300km²
what was the total cost of damage of hurricane katrina?
$300 billion
what type of habitats were destroyed after hurricane katrina?
coastal habitats such as sea turtle breeding beaches
what coastal conservation area was destroyed after hurricane katrina?
breton national wildlife refuge in louisiana
why were there oil spills after hurricane katrina?
flooding damaged oil refineries in louisiana
how did the usa’s warning systems help before hurricane katrina?
- the us coast guard positioned helicopters and boats around the area likely to be affected
- federal emergency management agency organised teams and supplies
- some areas, including new orleans ordered mandatory evacuation
- emergency shelters were set up for people who hadn’t evacuated e.g. new orleans had the louisiana super dome for 26,000 people
- organisations sent search and rescue teams, medical team and supplies into the area after the hurricane
What date did the 1989 San Francisco earthquake occur?
October 17, 1989
What was the magnitude of the 1989 San Francisco earthquake?
6.9
True or False: The 1989 earthquake caused the collapse of the San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge.
True
Fill in the blank: The 1989 San Francisco earthquake is also known as the __________ earthquake.
Loma Prieta
What was the primary cause of the 1989 San Francisco earthquake?
Movement along the San Andreas Fault
Approximately how many people were killed in the 1989 San Francisco earthquake?
63
What was one of the major infrastructure failures during the 1989 earthquake?
The collapse of the Cypress Street Viaduct
Multiple Choice: Which city experienced the most significant damage during the 1989 earthquake? A) San Jose B) San Francisco C) Oakland
B) San Francisco
What was the estimated cost of damages from the 1989 San Francisco earthquake?
Approximately $6 billion
Short Answer: Name one major response initiative taken after the 1989 earthquake.
The establishment of the California Seismic Safety Commission
True or False: The 1989 San Francisco earthquake led to changes in building codes in California.
True
Fill in the blank: The San Fransisco earthquake struck during the __________ World Series.
1989
What was the duration of the shaking during the 1989 earthquake?
Approximately 15 seconds
Multiple Choice: Which fault line was responsible for the 1989 earthquake? A) Hayward Fault B) San Andreas Fault C) San Jacinto Fault
B) San Andreas Fault
True or False: The 1989 San Francisco earthquake was the deadliest earthquake in U.S. history.
False
What was one of the immediate impacts on residents after the San Fransisco earthquake?
Loss of power and water supplies
Short Answer: How many aftershocks were recorded after the initial San Fransisco quake?
Approximately 11,000
What federal agency provided assistance after the 1989 San Francisco earthquake?
Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA)
Fill in the blank: The 1989 San Fransisco earthquake caused significant damage to __________ structures.
Historic
True or False: The 1989 San Francisco earthquake had a magnitude greater than 7.0.
False
What was one of the long-term effects of the 1989 San Fransisco earthquake on urban development?
Increased emphasis on earthquake preparedness and retrofitting buildings
Multiple Choice: Which area was most affected by fires following the San Fransisco earthquake? A) Northern California B) Marina District C) Financial District
B) Marina District
What major sporting event was interrupted by the San Fransisco earthquake?
The World Series
Short Answer: What was the main type of building damage observed in the Marina District after the San Fransisco earthquake?
Soft-story collapse
Fill in the blank: The earthquake’s epicenter was located near __________, California.
Loma Prieta
What was a significant social response by the community following the San Fransisco earthquake?
Volunteer efforts for disaster relief and recovery
What year did the eruption of Mount St. Helens occur?
1980
True or False: Mount St. Helens is located in California.
False
What was the magnitude of the Mount St. Helens eruption on the Volcanic Explosivity Index?
5
Fill in the blank: The eruption of Mount St. Helens was preceded by a series of __________.
earthquakes
What type of volcano is Mount St. Helens?
Stratovolcano
Which U.S. state is home to Mount St. Helens?
Washington
What was the primary gas emitted during the Mount St. Helenseruption?
Water vapor
Multiple Choice: What was the primary impact of the 1980 Mount St. Helens eruption?
A massive ash plume and pyroclastic flows
How many people died as a result of the Mount St. Helenseruption?
57
What was the name of the volcanic dome that formed after the Mount St. Helens eruption?
Lava dome
True or False: The Mount St. Helens eruption caused significant ecological damage.
True
What was the name of the forest that was devastated by the Mount St. Helenseruption?
Gifford Pinchot National Forest
Fill in the blank: The Mount St. Helens eruption created a large __________ in the mountain.
crater
What was the primary response by the government after the Mount St. Helens eruption?
Evacuations and disaster response initiatives
Multiple Choice: Which agency was primarily responsible for monitoring volcanic activity?
United States Geological Survey (USGS)
What year did the first major eruption occur after the initial blast? (Mount St. Helens)
1981
True or False: Mount St. Helens is still an active volcano.
True
What are lahars, as related to volcanic eruptions?
Volcanic mudflows
What was the primary material ejected during the eruption?
Tephra
Fill in the blank: The eruption altered the __________ of the surrounding landscape.
topography
What was one long-term ecological impact of the Mount St. Helenseruption?
Changes in wildlife habitats
Multiple Choice: Which of the following was a direct effect of the ash fallout?
Air quality deterioration
What type of monitoring technology was used to study Mount St. Helens?
Seismic monitoring
True or False: The eruption of Mount St. Helens was the deadliest volcanic eruption in U.S. history.
True
What is the name of the lake that formed as a result of the Mount St. Helens eruption?
Spirit Lake
What was the impact of the Mount St. Helens eruption on local communities?
Displacement and loss of property
What is the significance of the Mount St. Helens eruption for volcanic research?
Provided valuable data on volcanic behavior
What is the name of the volcano that erupted in 2010 in Iceland?
Eyjafjallajökull
In which year did the Eyjafjallajökull eruption occur?
2010
True or False: The eruption of Eyjafjallajökull caused significant air travel disruptions across Europe.
True
What type of volcanic eruption occurred at Eyjafjallajökull?
Plinian eruption
Fill in the blank: The ash plume from Eyjafjallajökull reached a height of approximately _____ kilometers.
9
Which major European feature was primarily affected by the ash cloud from Eyjafjallajökull?
Air travel
What was the primary gas released during the Eyjafjallajökull eruption?
Volcanic ash and gases, primarily water vapor and carbon dioxide
How long did the Eyjafjallajökull eruption last?
Approximately 6 weeks
Multiple Choice: Which of the following countries experienced flight cancellations due to the Eyjafjallajökull eruption? A) USA B) Iceland C) UK D) Australia
C) UK
What was the primary impact of the Eyjafjallajökull eruption on agriculture?
Ash fall affected crop yields and livestock due to contamination.
True or False: The Eyjafjallajökull eruption had no impact on global air traffic.
False
What was one of the emergency responses implemented due to the eruption?
Closure of airspace in affected regions.
Fill in the blank: The eruption of Eyjafjallajökull is part of the _____ volcanic system.
Icelandic
What was the estimated cost of the air travel disruption caused by the Eyjafallojökull eruption?
Approximately $1.7 billion
Multiple Choice: Which scientific tool was crucial for monitoring the Eyjafjallajökull eruption? A) Barometer B) Seismometer C) Anemometer D) Thermometer
B) Seismometer
What did scientists learn about volcanic eruptions from Eyjafjallajökull?
The importance of real-time monitoring for predicting air travel safety.
True or False: Eyjafjallajökull is the highest volcano in Iceland.
False
What geographical feature is Eyjafjallajökull located beneath?
A glacier
Fill in the blank: The ash from Eyjafjallajökull was primarily composed of _____ material.
Silicate
What was one long-term environmental impact of the Eyjafjallajökull eruption?
Changes in soil composition and local ecosystems.
What agency in Europe coordinated the response to the airspace closures due to the eruption?
Eurocontrol
What was the name of the ash cloud that resulted from the Eyjafallajökull eruption?
Eyjafjallajökull ash cloud
Multiple Choice: Which of the following sectors was most severely affected by the Eyjafjallajökull eruption? A) Agriculture B) Tourism C) Transportation D) Education
C) Transportation
What type of monitoring system was used to assess the volcanic activity?
Volcanic ash dispersal models
True or False: The eruption of Eyjafjallajökull was a single event with no subsequent activity.
False
What is Mount Merapi?
Mount Merapi is an active stratovolcano located on the border between Central Java and Yogyakarta in Indonesia.
True or False: Mount Merapi is one of the most active volcanoes in Indonesia.
True.
In which year did the significant eruption of Mount Merapi occur that caused widespread impact?
2010.
What type of volcanic eruption is most commonly associated with Mount Merapi?
Explosive eruptions.
Fill in the blank: The last major eruption of Mount Merapi prior to 2010 occurred in _____.
2006.
What were the immediate impacts of the 2010 eruption of Mount Merapi?
Evacuations, destruction of villages, and loss of life.
How many people were killed in the 2010 eruption of Mount Merapi?
Over 300 people.
Multiple Choice: What was the primary type of disaster response following the 2010 eruption of Mount Merapi? A) Military intervention B) Humanitarian aid C) Economic sanctions
B) Humanitarian aid.
What is the significance of the ‘alert level’ in relation to Mount Merapi?
It indicates the level of volcanic activity and the necessary precautions to be taken.
True or False: The area around Mount Merapi is heavily populated.
True.
What is the name of the government agency responsible for monitoring volcanic activity in Indonesia?
The Center for Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation (PVMBG).
What kind of preparations are made by local communities before a potential eruption?
Evacuation plans and drills.
Fill in the blank: The volcanic ash from Mount Merapi can adversely affect _____.
Air quality and agriculture.
What is pyroclastic flow?
A fast-moving current of hot gas and volcanic matter that flows down the slopes of a volcano.
Multiple Choice: Which of the following is NOT a response to volcanic eruptions? A) Evacuation B) Lava diversion C) Ignoring the warning signs
C) Ignoring the warning signs.
What role do local governments play in disaster response for volcanic eruptions?
They coordinate emergency services and provide assistance to affected communities.
True or False: International aid was provided to Indonesia following the 2010 eruption.
True.
What are some long-term impacts of the Mount Merapi eruption on the local community?
Displacement, loss of livelihood, and health issues related to ash exposure.
Fill in the blank: The volcanic eruptions can also lead to _____.
Lahars (volcanic mudflows).
What is the typical height of Mount Merapi?
Approximately 2,930 meters (9,616 feet).
Multiple Choice: Which of the following is a common hazard associated with volcanic eruptions? A) Earthquakes B) Tsunamis C) Landslides
A) Earthquakes.
What is the role of scientific monitoring in volcanic eruptions?
To assess volcanic activity and provide early warnings.
True or False: Volcanic eruptions can have global climate effects.
True.
What was one major health concern for the population after the Mount Merapi eruption?
Respiratory issues due to volcanic ash inhalation.
Fill in the blank: The Indonesian government established a _____ zone around Mount Merapi to ensure safety.
Hazard.
What is the primary composition of the lava from Mount Merapi?
Andesitic magma.
What is the significance of the 2010 eruption in terms of disaster preparedness in Indonesia?
It highlighted the need for improved disaster response and community education.
True or False: The eruption of Mount Merapi is a frequent event.
True.
When did Cyclone Nargis hit?
2nd May 2008
Where did Cyclone Nargis form?
Bay of Bengal
What category was Cyclone Nargis when it hit Myanmar?
Category 4
What were the initial wind speeds of Cyclone Nargis?
215km/h
How high was the storm surge in Cyclone Nargis?
5m
The area of _________ _____ in Myanmar was the hardest hit because of Cyclone Nargis.
Irrawaddy Delta
What other country was badly affected by Cyclone Nargis?
Sri Lanka
Name three social impacts of Cyclone Nargis.
- 140,000 people killed
- 450,000 houses destroyed, 2.5 million people left without shelter
- 4,000 schools and 75% health facilities destroyed or severely damaged
- 43% of freshwater ponds were damaged by salt water
- 70% of people had no access to clean water
- people suffered from diseases caused by poor sanitary conditions and contaminated water
Name two economic impacts of Cyclone Nargis.
- over 6000km² of agricultural land was damaged, including rice paddies
- agriculture was affected (crops and farm animals were lost and over 40% of food stores were destroyed)
- millions of people lost their livelihoods, e.g. many fishing boats were destroyed
- the total cost of damage was around US $4 billion
Name two environmental impacts of Cyclone Nargis.
- 380km² of mangrove forests were destroyed (mangroves protect the coast from flooding)
- flooding caused erosion and salinisation (increased salt content) of land
Why was Myanmar so badly affected by Cyclone Nargis?
- Myanmar doesn’t have a dedicated hurricane monitoring centre
- They didn’t say how severe it would be
- There were no emergency preparations, no evacuation plans and the country didn’t have an early warning system
- After the cyclone, the government initially refused to accept any foreign aid
- This refusal greatly increased the number of deaths
What was the location of the Chances Peak eruption?
The Chances Peak eruption occurred on the island of Montserrat in the Caribbean.
When did the Chances Peak eruption begin?
The eruption began in 1995.
What is the name of the volcano that erupted in Montserrat?
The volcano is called Soufrière Hills, and its summit is known as Chances Peak.
What type of volcano is Soufrière Hills?
Soufrière Hills is a stratovolcano, characterized by explosive eruptions.
What were the main types of volcanic activity during the eruption?
The eruption included pyroclastic flows, ash falls, and lahars (mudflows).
How long did the Chances Peak eruption last?
The eruption lasted for several years, with activity continuing sporadically from 1995 to 2010.
What was the immediate effect of the eruption on Montserrat’s population?
The eruption led to the evacuation of thousands of residents, particularly from the southern part of the island.
What was the size of the population affected by the eruption?
Approximately 75% of the population was forced to evacuate.
How many people were killed during the eruption?
The eruption resulted in 19 fatalities.
What was the economic impact of the eruption on Montserrat?
The eruption devastated the local economy, with many businesses destroyed, and the tourism industry was severely affected.
Which area of Montserrat was most affected by the eruption?
The southern part of the island, particularly the capital city Plymouth, was most impacted.
What happened to the town of Plymouth during the eruption?
Plymouth was buried under ash and pyroclastic material, effectively making it uninhabitable.
What role did scientific monitoring play during the eruption?
Scientific monitoring helped to predict eruptions and issue warnings to reduce loss of life.
Which organizations were involved in monitoring the eruption?
The Montserrat Volcano Observatory (MVO) played a key role in monitoring the eruption.
How did the British government respond to the eruption?
The British government provided financial and logistical support to the island, including evacuations and long-term recovery aid.
How did the eruption affect agriculture on Montserrat?
Agricultural activities were severely disrupted due to ash fall and the destruction of farmland.
What impact did the eruption have on air travel in the region?
Ash clouds disrupted air travel, forcing airports in the region to close temporarily.
What long-term environmental impacts resulted from the eruption?
The landscape was dramatically altered, with new lava domes and craters forming, and vegetation being buried or destroyed by ash.
How did the eruption affect Montserrat’s infrastructure?
The eruption caused significant damage to roads, buildings, and utilities, hampering recovery efforts.
What was one of the key responses to the eruption in terms of disaster preparedness?
Emergency response plans, including evacuation routes and shelters, were established and improved.
How did the eruption affect the island’s population in terms of displacement?
Many residents were forced to live in temporary shelters or move to other islands, particularly Antigua.
What were some of the economic recovery efforts post-eruption?
Recovery efforts focused on rebuilding infrastructure, supporting displaced residents, and revitalizing the economy through external aid.
How did the eruption impact tourism on Montserrat?
The eruption devastated tourism, as Plymouth, the island’s main tourist destination, was destroyed.
What is the current status of the Soufrière Hills volcano?
The volcano is still active, although volcanic activity has decreased since the eruption’s peak.
What lessons were learned from the Chances Peak eruption?
The eruption highlighted the importance of volcano monitoring, emergency preparedness, and international cooperation in disaster response.
When did the 2010 Haiti earthquake occur?
The earthquake occurred on January 12, 2010.
What was the magnitude of the 2010 Haiti earthquake?
The earthquake had a magnitude of 7.0 on the Richter scale.
What was the epicenter of the 2010 Haiti earthquake?
The epicenter was located near the town of Leogane, approximately 25 kilometers southwest of the capital, Port-au-Prince.
What caused the 2010 Haiti earthquake?
The earthquake was caused by the movement of the Enriquillo-Plantain Garden fault zone, a major strike-slip fault.
How many people were killed in the 2010 Haiti earthquake?
It is estimated that around 160,000 to 230,000 people were killed.
How many people were injured by the earthquake?
Over 300,000 people were injured during the earthquake.
What was the extent of the damage in Port-au-Prince?
Port-au-Prince suffered extensive damage, with buildings, infrastructure, and homes collapsing throughout the city.
How many people were displaced by the earthquake?
Approximately 1.5 million people were displaced by the earthquake.
What major structures in Port-au-Prince were destroyed?
Key buildings such as the National Palace, the Cathedral of Port-au-Prince, and the Ministry of Finance were destroyed.
What was the impact of the earthquake on Haiti’s infrastructure?
The earthquake severely damaged Haiti’s infrastructure, including roads, bridges, and communication networks.
What was the immediate response from Haiti’s government?
The Haitian government, along with international aid organizations, coordinated relief efforts, but was overwhelmed by the scale of the disaster.
Which international organizations provided assistance to Haiti after the earthquake?
The United Nations, the Red Cross, USAID, and many other countries and NGOs provided humanitarian aid.
How did the United States assist Haiti after the earthquake?
The United States provided search-and-rescue teams, medical aid, food, water, and logistical support.
How long did it take for international aid to begin arriving in Haiti after the earthquake?
Aid began arriving within hours, but logistical challenges delayed the full-scale distribution of assistance.
What were the main challenges faced during the disaster response in Haiti?
Challenges included damaged infrastructure, difficulty reaching affected areas, and limited resources.
What type of aid was most urgently needed in Haiti after the earthquake?
Emergency medical care, clean water, food, and shelter were the most urgently needed forms of aid.
How did the earthquake affect Haiti’s economy?
The earthquake severely affected Haiti’s economy, leading to significant financial losses and a decrease in productivity.
What were some of the long-term health impacts of the earthquake?
The earthquake resulted in long-term health issues, including the spread of diseases such as cholera, and physical disabilities from injuries.
How did the earthquake affect Haiti’s education system?
Many schools were destroyed, and education was disrupted for hundreds of thousands of children.
What was the role of the Haitian diaspora in the earthquake’s aftermath?
The Haitian diaspora contributed significantly through financial donations, organizing aid, and raising awareness.
What was the impact of the earthquake on Haiti’s political situation?
The earthquake further destabilized Haiti’s already fragile political situation, as government infrastructure was destroyed.
What were some of the environmental impacts of the 2010 Haiti earthquake?
Landslides and environmental degradation occurred as a result of collapsed buildings, displaced soil, and deforestation.
How did the earthquake affect Haiti’s infrastructure recovery efforts?
The earthquake caused a significant delay in reconstruction efforts due to the destruction of roads, ports, and government buildings.
What lessons were learned from the response to the 2010 Haiti earthquake?
Key lessons included the importance of pre-disaster planning, improving infrastructure resilience, and better coordination of aid efforts.
How is Haiti recovering from the 2010 earthquake today?
While progress has been made, recovery remains ongoing, with significant challenges related to rebuilding infrastructure, housing, and improving the economy.
When did the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake occur?
The earthquake occurred on March 11, 2011, at 2:46 PM local time.
What was the magnitude of the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake?
The earthquake had a magnitude of 9.0 on the Richter scale.
What caused the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake?
The earthquake was caused by the subduction of the Pacific Plate beneath the North American Plate at the Japan Trench.
What was the epicenter of the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake?
The epicenter was located off the northeastern coast of Honshu, Japan, near the city of Sendai.
How deep was the Japan earthquake’s focus?
The earthquake occurred at a depth of approximately 30 kilometers (19 miles) beneath the Earth’s surface.
How large was the tsunami caused by the Japan earthquake?
The earthquake triggered a massive tsunami with waves reaching up to 40 meters (130 feet) in height in some areas.
How far did the Japan tsunami waves travel?
The tsunami waves traveled across the Pacific Ocean, reaching as far as the coasts of Hawaii, the Philippines, and the west coast of the United States.
How many people were killed by the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami?
Over 15,000 people were killed, with over 2,500 people still missing.
How many people were injured in the earthquake?
More than 6,000 people were injured during the earthquake and tsunami.
What was the economic impact of the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake?
The economic damage was estimated at around $235 billion, making it one of the costliest natural disasters in history.
What damage occurred in the Fukushima region?
The earthquake and tsunami caused severe damage to the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant, leading to nuclear meltdowns and radiation leaks.
How did the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake affect Japan’s power supply?
The earthquake disrupted the power supply, with nuclear reactors shut down and widespread power outages in many regions.
What was the impact of the earthquake on transportation in Japan?
Transportation systems were severely affected, including the destruction of roads, railways, and airports, as well as the disruption of the Shinkansen (bullet trains).
How many people were displaced by the earthquake and tsunami?
More than 450,000 people were displaced due to the earthquake and tsunami, many living in temporary shelters for months or years.
What were some of the environmental impacts of the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake?
The tsunami caused extensive damage to ecosystems, including the destruction of coastal habitats, the contamination of water supplies, and debris spread across the ocean.
How did the Japanese government respond to the earthquake?
The Japanese government launched a large-scale rescue and relief operation, deploying military personnel and emergency response teams to affected areas.
What international aid did Japan receive after the earthquake?
Japan received aid from many countries, including the United States, China, Australia, and the European Union, with supplies of food, water, medical assistance, and rescue teams.
What was the role of the Japan Self-Defense Forces (JSDF) in the response?
The JSDF was deployed to assist with rescue operations, providing search-and-rescue teams, medical support, and logistics for disaster relief.
What kind of energy crisis did Japan face after the earthquake?
Japan faced an energy crisis as many nuclear power plants were shut down due to safety concerns, leading to a dependence on alternative energy sources and imported fuel.
What was the state of the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant after the earthquake?
The plant suffered catastrophic damage from the tsunami, leading to three reactor meltdowns, radiation leaks, and the evacuation of nearby residents.
How did Japan’s building codes fare during the earthquake?
Japan’s strict building codes helped prevent large-scale structural collapses, especially in modern buildings, saving many lives.
How did the earthquake affect Japan’s economy in the long term?
The earthquake led to a temporary slowdown in Japan’s economy, particularly in the manufacturing sector, but the country began rebuilding and recovering within a few years.
What were the long-term psychological effects of the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake on survivors?
Many survivors experienced post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), anxiety, and depression due to the loss of loved ones, displacement, and the overall impact of the disaster.
How did the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake influence global disaster preparedness?
The disaster highlighted the importance of early warning systems, better coordination in emergency responses, and improving tsunami evacuation planning in coastal regions.
How did the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake affect Japan’s relationship with nuclear energy?
The Fukushima disaster led to a reevaluation of Japan’s nuclear energy policy, with a shift toward reducing dependence on nuclear power and investing more in renewable energy sources.
When did the Boxing Day 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami occur?
The tsunami occurred on December 26, 2004.
What was the magnitude of the earthquake that triggered the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami?
The earthquake had a magnitude of 9.1–9.3 on the Richter scale.
Where was the epicenter of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake?
The epicenter was located off the west coast of northern Sumatra, Indonesia, near the Sunda Trench.
What caused the Indian Ocean tsunami of 2004?
The tsunami was caused by a massive undersea earthquake that triggered a series of waves along the coastlines of many countries bordering the Indian Ocean.
How large were the tsunami waves?
Waves reached heights of up to 30 meters (100 feet) in some areas.
Which countries were most affected by the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami?
Countries most affected included Indonesia, Sri Lanka, India, Thailand, and the Maldives.
How many people were killed by the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami?
An estimated 230,000 to 280,000 people were killed.
How many people were displaced by the 2004 tsunami?
Over 1.7 million people were displaced across the affected regions.
What were the long-term impacts of the tsunami on the affected countries?
The tsunami caused widespread destruction of homes, infrastructure, and livelihoods, with long-term impacts on local economies, tourism, agriculture, and public health.
What was the scale of the destruction in Indonesia, particularly in Aceh?
In Aceh, Indonesia, over 100,000 people were killed, and the region was devastated by the tsunami, which wiped out entire villages and infrastructure.
What was the response from the international community to the 2004 tsunami?
A massive international humanitarian response occurred, with billions of dollars in aid, search-and-rescue teams, medical assistance, and reconstruction efforts from governments, NGOs, and private organizations.
How did the tsunami impact the environment?
The tsunami caused widespread environmental damage, including the destruction of coral reefs, mangroves, and coastal ecosystems, as well as contamination of freshwater supplies.
How long did the tsunami waves take to travel across the Indian Ocean?
The tsunami waves reached the coastlines within hours, with the first waves hitting Indonesia approximately 15–20 minutes after the earthquake.
What role did the Indian Ocean Tsunami Warning System play after the event?
The tsunami highlighted the need for an early warning system, leading to the establishment of a regional tsunami warning system for the Indian Ocean in the years following the disaster.
How did the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami affect tourism?
Tourism in many affected areas, particularly in Thailand and Sri Lanka, was devastated, as popular resorts and beaches were destroyed, and many visitors were either killed or stranded.
What was the effect of the tsunami on the economy of affected regions?
The economy was severely impacted, especially in coastal regions that relied on fishing, agriculture, and tourism, leading to long-term economic recovery challenges.
What was the role of the United Nations in the aftermath of the tsunami?
The UN coordinated relief efforts, including emergency food, water, medical supplies, and the establishment of temporary shelters for the displaced.
How did Indonesia’s government respond to the 2004 tsunami?
Indonesia’s government launched a large-scale relief and recovery operation, with assistance from international organizations and military personnel.
How did the tsunami impact the fishing industry in affected areas?
The fishing industry was devastated, with boats, nets, and infrastructure destroyed, and many communities reliant on fishing for their livelihoods were severely impacted.
How did the tsunami affect the Maldives?
The Maldives, composed of low-lying islands, suffered extensive damage to its infrastructure, with many homes and resorts destroyed, and several islands completely inundated.
What were some of the health issues caused by the tsunami?
Health concerns included the spread of infectious diseases, such as cholera and dysentery, as well as injuries, trauma, and mental health issues among survivors.
How did the Indian Ocean tsunami affect Sri Lanka?
Sri Lanka experienced widespread damage, particularly in the coastal regions, with over 35,000 deaths and major destruction to homes, roads, and infrastructure.
What was the role of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) in the tsunami response?
NGOs played a crucial role in delivering food, water, medical care, and temporary housing, as well as supporting long-term reconstruction efforts.
How did the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami impact children in affected regions?
The tsunami caused widespread trauma and loss, with many children orphaned or separated from their families, leading to long-term psychological and social challenges.
What improvements were made to tsunami preparedness after the 2004 event?
The disaster led to the establishment of the Indian Ocean Tsunami Warning System, as well as improvements in global tsunami detection and emergency preparedness, saving lives in subsequent events.
When did Cyclone Nargis occur?
Cyclone Nargis struck Myanmar on May 2, 2008.
What was the intensity of Cyclone Nargis?
Cyclone Nargis reached Category 4 on the Saffir-Simpson hurricane scale.
What was the cause of Cyclone Nargis?
Cyclone Nargis was a tropical cyclone caused by low-pressure systems forming over the Bay of Bengal.
How strong were the winds of Cyclone Nargis?
The cyclone had maximum sustained winds of up to 215 km/h (134 mph).
What areas were most affected by Cyclone Nargis?
The most affected areas included the Irrawaddy Delta, Rangoon (Yangon), and the Ayeyarwady Division.
How many people were killed by Cyclone Nargis?
The cyclone killed approximately 138,000 people, with many others reported missing.
How many people were displaced due to Cyclone Nargis?
Around 2.4 million people were displaced by the cyclone, with many living in temporary shelters.
What was the impact on infrastructure in Myanmar?
Cyclone Nargis caused widespread destruction of infrastructure, including roads, bridges, buildings, and communication networks.
What was the impact on agriculture in Myanmar after Cyclone Nargis?
The cyclone devastated the agricultural sector, destroying crops, farmland, and the livelihoods of many farmers in the Irrawaddy Delta.
What was the impact on Myanmar’s economy after the cyclone?
The destruction of agricultural land, infrastructure, and property led to significant economic losses, particularly in rural areas reliant on agriculture.
How did Cyclone Nargis affect Myanmar’s health situation?
The cyclone led to the spread of waterborne diseases, including cholera and dysentery, and disrupted healthcare services.
What was the role of the Myanmar government in the response to Cyclone Nargis?
The Myanmar government was initially slow to respond and reluctant to accept international aid, limiting the scope of immediate assistance.
What role did the international community play in the aftermath of Cyclone Nargis?
The international community, including the United Nations, foreign governments, and NGOs, provided emergency relief, including food, water, medical supplies, and shelter.
How did the United Nations respond to Cyclone Nargis?
The UN coordinated emergency relief efforts, mobilizing humanitarian aid and resources to support affected populations.
How did Cyclone Nargis impact Myanmar’s political landscape?
The cyclone’s impact highlighted the challenges of Myanmar’s military government and led to international criticism over its handling of the disaster and aid distribution.
What were the long-term effects of Cyclone Nargis on the environment?
The cyclone caused extensive environmental damage, including the destruction of mangrove forests, loss of biodiversity, and contamination of water sources.
How did the cyclone affect the fishing industry in Myanmar?
The cyclone caused extensive damage to fishing boats and infrastructure, devastating the livelihoods of many people dependent on the fishing industry.
What was the role of NGOs in responding to Cyclone Nargis?
NGOs provided critical services such as food, clean water, shelter, medical aid, and psychological support, despite initial restrictions from the government.
How long did it take for aid to reach the worst-hit areas after Cyclone Nargis?
It took several days for aid to reach the hardest-hit regions due to logistical challenges and restrictions imposed by the government.
What was the impact on education in Myanmar due to Cyclone Nargis?
Many schools were destroyed or damaged, and education was severely disrupted, particularly in the affected rural areas.
What steps were taken to help rebuild after Cyclone Nargis?
Efforts included rebuilding homes, restoring agriculture, providing health services, and rebuilding infrastructure with the help of both international and local organizations.
How did Cyclone Nargis affect Myanmar’s coastal population?
The coastal population was heavily impacted, as many communities were located in low-lying areas that were hit hardest by the storm surge and flooding.
How did the cyclone affect Myanmar’s public health system?
The public health system was overwhelmed by the disaster, with shortages of medical supplies and personnel, particularly in remote areas.
What lessons were learned from Cyclone Nargis?
The disaster highlighted the importance of preparedness, international cooperation, and effective response mechanisms, as well as the need for better communication and infrastructure in disaster-prone regions.
How has Myanmar improved its disaster response since Cyclone Nargis?
Although Myanmar has faced challenges in improving disaster response, there have been efforts to strengthen disaster preparedness, early warning systems, and coordination with international aid organizations.
When did the 2016 Alberta Wildfire occur?
The wildfire started on May 1, 2016, and lasted until July 5, 2016.
Where was the Alberta Wildfire located?
The wildfire occurred in the Fort McMurray area, located in northeastern Alberta, Canada.
How large was the area affected by the 2016 Alberta Wildfire?
The fire consumed approximately 1.5 million acres (600,000 hectares) of land.
What was the cause of the Alberta Wildfire in 2016?
The exact cause of the fire is unknown, but it is believed to have started due to human activity or lightning strikes.
How did the Alberta Wildfire spread so quickly?
The fire spread rapidly due to hot, dry conditions, strong winds, and the presence of dense vegetation, particularly in the forested areas.
How many people were forced to evacuate due to the 2016 Alberta Wildfire?
More than 88,000 people were evacuated from Fort McMurray and surrounding areas.
What impact did the fire have on the city of Fort McMurray?
The wildfire caused extensive damage to Fort McMurray, destroying over 2,400 buildings, including homes, schools, and businesses.
How long did the evacuation last for residents of Fort McMurray?
Residents were evacuated for several weeks, with the majority of evacuees returning in early June 2016.
What were the primary challenges in containing the wildfire?
The wildfire’s rapid spread, high winds, and limited access to certain areas made firefighting efforts extremely difficult.
What role did the weather play in the Alberta Wildfire?
Extremely hot, dry, and windy conditions contributed to the wildfire’s intensity and rapid growth.
How did the wildfire affect the oil sands industry in Alberta?
The wildfire forced the closure of several oil sands facilities and temporarily halted production, leading to a significant economic impact.
How much damage did the Alberta Wildfire cause?
The wildfire caused an estimated $9.9 billion in damages, making it the costliest disaster in Canadian history.
What steps were taken to protect critical infrastructure during the wildfire?
Firefighters worked tirelessly to protect key infrastructure, including power lines, water treatment plants, and oil facilities, to minimize further damage.
How did the government of Alberta respond to the wildfire?
The provincial government declared a state of emergency, deployed thousands of firefighters, and provided emergency aid to affected residents.
What international aid was provided during the 2016 Alberta Wildfire?
International firefighters and assistance from countries like the U.S. and Australia were offered to support firefighting efforts in Alberta.
How did residents of Fort McMurray react to the evacuation?
The evacuation was chaotic, with many residents having to leave quickly, but there was also a strong sense of community and solidarity as people helped each other.
How did the wildfire impact air quality in the region?
The smoke from the wildfire caused poor air quality, leading to health concerns such as respiratory issues and asthma exacerbation for residents.
How did the 2016 Alberta Wildfire affect local wildlife?
The wildfire destroyed wildlife habitats, displacing animals and threatening local species. Some animals were able to escape, while others faced extreme conditions.
How did the Alberta Wildfire affect the mental health of residents?
Many residents experienced stress, anxiety, and trauma due to the evacuation, loss of property, and the overall impact of the disaster on their lives.
What was the impact of the wildfire on tourism in the area?
Tourism in the affected region was severely impacted, with hotels, parks, and other attractions closed for months after the fire.
How was the rebuilding process after the Alberta Wildfire?
The rebuilding process was slow but steady, with efforts to restore homes, infrastructure, and services taking several years to complete.
How did climate change play a role in the 2016 Alberta Wildfire?
Climate change contributed to hotter, drier conditions, which increased the frequency and intensity of wildfires, including in Alberta.
How did the media cover the Alberta Wildfire?
The wildfire received extensive media coverage, both in Canada and internationally, highlighting the scale of the disaster and the efforts to fight it.
What improvements have been made to wildfire response since 2016?
Following the wildfire, there have been improvements in emergency preparedness, evacuation plans, and firefighting capabilities to better handle future fires.
How did the Alberta Wildfire affect the oil and gas industry in the long term?
The wildfire temporarily disrupted oil sands production, but the industry quickly recovered as production resumed. However, the event highlighted the vulnerability of infrastructure to natural disasters.
Why is Central Italy considered a dangerous place in terms of natural hazards?
Central Italy is prone to earthquakes, volcanic activity, and landslides due to its location along tectonic plate boundaries.
What is the main tectonic plate boundary affecting Central Italy?
Central Italy is located near the boundary between the African Plate and the Eurasian Plate, making it seismically active.
What type of geological hazard is most common in Central Italy?
Earthquakes are the most common and destructive geological hazard in Central Italy.
What is the historical significance of earthquakes in Central Italy?
Central Italy has experienced significant earthquakes throughout history, causing widespread destruction and loss of life, such as the 2009 L’Aquila earthquake.
What was the magnitude of the 2009 L’Aquila earthquake?
The 2009 L’Aquila earthquake had a magnitude of 6.3 on the Richter scale.
How many people were killed in the 2009 L’Aquila earthquake?
The earthquake killed around 309 people and caused severe damage to the city of L’Aquila.
Which area in Central Italy is particularly known for volcanic activity?
The region around Mount Vesuvius, near Naples, is one of the most active and dangerous volcanic areas in the world.
What was the most famous eruption of Mount Vesuvius?
The eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD destroyed the Roman cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum.
What is the current risk posed by Mount Vesuvius?
Mount Vesuvius remains an active volcano, and over 3 million people live in its danger zone, making it a significant hazard.
What is the impact of volcanic eruptions on Central Italy’s environment?
Volcanic eruptions can lead to the destruction of land, air pollution, ash fallout, and disruptions to agriculture and transportation.
What other volcano in Central Italy poses a threat to its residents?
Mount Etna in Sicily is another active volcano that frequently erupts and poses risks to local communities.
How does Italy’s geography make it prone to landslides?
Central Italy’s mountainous terrain, combined with heavy rainfall, makes the region vulnerable to landslides, especially in steep areas.
What was the impact of the 1997 Umbria-Marche earthquake?
The 1997 earthquake had a magnitude of 6.0 and caused extensive damage in towns such as Assisi, Norcia, and Foligno, resulting in casualties and economic losses.
How do the Apennine Mountains contribute to the hazards in Central Italy?
The Apennine Mountain range is seismically active, with frequent earthquakes occurring along its faults, making it a high-risk area for seismic activity.
How do seismic hazards affect the population in Central Italy?
Earthquakes in Central Italy can cause significant destruction of buildings, loss of life, and displacement of residents, especially in historic towns.
Why are historic buildings in Central Italy at risk during earthquakes?
Many historic buildings in the region are old, often built before modern earthquake-resistant designs, making them more vulnerable to seismic shaking.
How do the authorities in Central Italy prepare for natural disasters?
Authorities have developed emergency plans, early warning systems, and building codes designed to mitigate the impact of earthquakes and other natural hazards.
What is the role of the National Civil Protection Department in Italy?
The National Civil Protection Department coordinates disaster response, conducts drills, and works on disaster preparedness and recovery in the event of natural hazards.
How does climate change impact the risk of natural disasters in Central Italy?
Climate change may increase the frequency of extreme weather events, including intense rainfall that can trigger floods and landslides, exacerbating the risks in the region.
What are some of the major flood risks in Central Italy?
Heavy rainfall can cause flooding in river valleys, especially in urban areas, as well as flash floods in mountainous regions.
What is the role of the Italian Institute of Geophysics and Volcanology (INGV)?
The INGV monitors seismic and volcanic activity, providing early warnings and research to help mitigate natural hazards in Italy.
How do people in Central Italy cope with the risks of earthquakes and volcanoes?
Many people live with the constant awareness of these risks, while local authorities provide education on disaster preparedness and building reinforcement.
What is the impact of the frequent seismic activity on the local economy?
Frequent earthquakes can hinder long-term economic growth, delay reconstruction efforts, and disrupt local businesses and agriculture in the affected areas.
How does the Italian government promote disaster awareness?
The government runs awareness campaigns, provides disaster preparedness materials, and encourages residents to reinforce their homes against seismic activity.
How does Central Italy’s vulnerability to natural hazards affect its tourism industry?
Although the region’s natural beauty and historical sites attract tourists, the risk of natural disasters can occasionally affect tourism, especially in areas impacted by earthquakes or volcanic activity.
What are the types of natural hazards?
Types of natural hazards include geological (e.g., earthquakes, volcanic eruptions) and meteorological (e.g., hurricanes, floods) hazards.
What is risk in the context of natural hazards?
Risk is the likelihood of a hazard causing harm to people, property, or the environment. It is influenced by the vulnerability of people and the hazard’s intensity.
What is vulnerability in the context of natural hazards?
Vulnerability refers to the degree to which a population or community is susceptible to the impacts of natural hazards, based on factors such as wealth, preparedness, and infrastructure.
What is the pressure and release model (PAR)?
The PAR model explains how natural hazards become disasters through the interaction of hazard events and human vulnerability. It identifies factors like root causes, dynamic pressures, and unsafe conditions.
What is the hazard management cycle?
The hazard management cycle is the process through which societies prepare for, respond to, and recover from natural hazards. It includes mitigation, preparedness, response, and recovery.
What is the role of monitoring in natural hazard management?
Monitoring involves observing and detecting natural hazards (e.g., seismic activity for earthquakes, weather patterns for hurricanes) to provide early warnings and reduce impacts.
How do scientists monitor volcanic activity?
Scientists monitor volcanic activity using techniques like gas emissions, ground deformation, seismic activity, and temperature changes to predict eruptions.
How do scientists monitor earthquake activity?
Earthquakes are monitored using seismographs, GPS systems, and analyzing patterns of seismic activity and fault lines.
What is a hazard profile?
A hazard profile is a visual representation that compares the characteristics of different hazards, such as frequency, magnitude, speed of onset, and spatial extent.
What are the key characteristics of a volcanic eruption?
Key characteristics include magnitude, eruption style (e.g., explosive or effusive), frequency, duration, and the type of material emitted (lava, ash, gases).
What is the difference between explosive and effusive volcanic eruptions?
Explosive eruptions release ash, gas, and pyroclastic material violently, while effusive eruptions involve the gentle release of lava flows.
What are the impacts of volcanic eruptions?
Impacts include loss of life, destruction of infrastructure, ash fall, lava flows, pyroclastic flows, climate change (global cooling), and long-term environmental changes.
What are the primary effects of earthquakes?
Primary effects of earthquakes include ground shaking, surface rupture, and the collapse of buildings and infrastructure.
What are the secondary effects of earthquakes?
Secondary effects include tsunamis, landslides, fires, and disruption to communication, transport, and essential services.
What are the causes of earthquakes?
Earthquakes are caused by the sudden release of energy due to tectonic plate movements, such as convergent, divergent, and transform boundary interactions.
What is the difference between a primary and secondary tsunami wave?
A primary tsunami wave is the first wave generated by the displacement of water, while secondary waves are generated by subsequent displacements or aftershocks.
How do tropical cyclones form?
Tropical cyclones form when warm ocean water (above 26.5°C) causes air to rise, creating a low-pressure system. The Coriolis effect causes the system to rotate and develop into a cyclone.
What are the impacts of tropical cyclones?
Impacts of tropical cyclones include strong winds, storm surges, flooding, landslides, and loss of life, as well as long-term economic and environmental damage.
What is the Saffir-Simpson scale?
The Saffir-Simpson scale is used to measure the intensity of tropical cyclones, rating them from category 1 (least severe) to category 5 (most severe).
What is the difference between a drought and a flood?
A drought is an extended period of below-average rainfall, leading to water shortages, while a flood is an overflow of water onto land, usually due to heavy rainfall or snowmelt.
What are the human causes of flooding?
Human causes of flooding include urbanization (increased surface runoff), deforestation, poor land management, and building in floodplains.
What are the physical causes of flooding?
Physical causes include heavy rainfall, snowmelt, high river discharge, storm surges, and topography (e.g., low-lying areas).
What is the relationship between hazards and vulnerability?
Hazards become disasters when vulnerable populations are exposed to them. Vulnerability is determined by factors like population density, economic development, and infrastructure quality.
What role does mitigation play in hazard management?
Mitigation involves actions to reduce the severity or likelihood of natural hazards, such as strengthening infrastructure or reducing deforestation.
What is disaster preparedness?
Disaster preparedness involves planning and training to ensure that people are ready to respond effectively to a natural hazard, such as creating evacuation plans and emergency supplies.
What is disaster response?
Disaster response refers to the immediate actions taken after a natural disaster to protect lives and property, such as providing emergency aid, rescue operations, and shelter.
What is recovery in natural hazard management?
Recovery refers to the process of rebuilding and restoring normalcy after a disaster, including infrastructure repair, economic recovery, and long-term support for affected populations.
What is the role of technology in hazard management?
Technology helps in predicting, monitoring, and mitigating hazards (e.g., early warning systems, GPS for tracking hurricanes, or satellite imagery for monitoring volcanic activity).
What is the significance of the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami in Japan?
The Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami caused widespread devastation, including a nuclear disaster at Fukushima. It highlighted the importance of tsunami warnings, evacuation plans, and nuclear safety.
How do early warning systems help reduce the impacts of natural hazards?
Early warning systems provide information on imminent hazards, allowing people to evacuate or take protective actions in advance, reducing fatalities and property damage.
How does urbanization affect vulnerability to natural hazards?
Urbanization increases vulnerability due to high population density, inadequate infrastructure, and the encroachment on floodplains or unstable land areas.
What is the role of education in reducing vulnerability to hazards?
Education helps communities understand the risks of natural hazards and teaches people how to respond effectively during emergencies, thereby reducing vulnerability and increasing resilience.
What are the social impacts of natural hazards?
Social impacts include loss of life, displacement, disruption to daily life, psychological trauma, and strain on social services and healthcare.
What are the economic impacts of natural hazards?
Economic impacts include the cost of damage to infrastructure, loss of business and productivity, and the cost of recovery efforts.
What is the role of international aid in disaster recovery?
International aid provides essential resources, including financial support, food, water, and technical expertise, helping affected countries recover more quickly and effectively.
What are the environmental impacts of natural hazards?
Environmental impacts include land degradation, deforestation, destruction of ecosystems, contamination of water supplies, and long-term damage to natural habitats.
What is the concept of resilience in hazard management?
Resilience is the ability of a community or system to absorb, adapt, and recover from the impacts of natural hazards.
What is the difference between short-term and long-term recovery after a natural hazard?
Short-term recovery involves immediate actions like providing food, water, and shelter, while long-term recovery focuses on rebuilding infrastructure, restoring economies, and ensuring future preparedness.
How does climate change affect the frequency and intensity of natural hazards?
Climate change can increase the frequency and intensity of meteorological hazards like tropical cyclones, floods, and droughts due to rising global temperatures and changing weather patterns.
What is the significance of the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami?
The 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, triggered by a massive undersea earthquake, highlighted the importance of tsunami warning systems and international coordination in disaster response.
What role do international organizations play in managing natural hazards?
International organizations such as the UN, Red Cross, and WHO provide coordination, funding, and expertise in disaster response and recovery efforts worldwide.
What are the key factors that affect the vulnerability of a population to natural hazards?
Key factors include poverty, lack of access to education, quality of infrastructure, population density, and location (e.g., near tectonic plate boundaries or floodplains).
What is land-use zoning and how does it help reduce vulnerability?
Land-use zoning involves regulating the types of development allowed in hazard-prone areas (e.g., avoiding construction in floodplains) to reduce the potential impacts of natural hazards.
How do coastal defences reduce vulnerability to flooding and storm surges?
Coastal defences, such as sea walls, tidal barriers, and mangrove restoration, help prevent or reduce the impact of storm surges and coastal flooding.
What are the impacts of wildfires as a natural hazard?
Impacts of wildfires include loss of life, destruction of property, damage to ecosystems, air pollution, and long-term recovery challenges.
What is hazard mapping?
Hazard mapping involves creating visual representations of hazard-prone areas (e.g., flood zones, earthquake fault lines)
What are tectonic plates?
Tectonic plates are large sections of the Earth’s lithosphere that move and interact on the semi-fluid asthenosphere beneath them.
What is the theory of plate tectonics?
The theory of plate tectonics states that the Earth’s lithosphere is divided into several large, rigid plates that float on the semi-fluid asthenosphere and move relative to each other.
What are the three main types of plate boundaries?
The three main types of plate boundaries are divergent (constructive), convergent (destructive), and transform (conservative).
What happens at divergent plate boundaries?
At divergent boundaries, tectonic plates move away from each other, causing the formation of new crust, often through volcanic activity (e.g., mid-ocean ridges).
What happens at convergent plate boundaries?
At convergent boundaries, tectonic plates move towards each other. One plate may be forced beneath another (subduction), leading to the formation of mountain ranges, deep ocean trenches, and volcanic activity.
What happens at transform plate boundaries?
At transform boundaries, plates slide past each other horizontally, causing earthquakes along faults (e.g., the San Andreas Fault in California).
What is subduction?
Subduction is the process where one tectonic plate is forced beneath another at a convergent plate boundary, leading to the formation of ocean trenches and volcanic arcs.
What is an ocean trench?
An ocean trench is a deep, narrow depression in the ocean floor formed by subduction, where one plate is pushed under another (e.g., the Mariana Trench).
What is a mid-ocean ridge?
A mid-ocean ridge is an underwater mountain range formed at divergent plate boundaries where new oceanic crust is created as plates pull apart (e.g., the Mid-Atlantic Ridge).
What is sea-floor spreading?
Sea-floor spreading is the process where new oceanic crust is created at divergent boundaries (e.g., mid-ocean ridges), causing the sea floor to spread outwards.
What is continental drift?
Continental drift is the theory that continents were once part of a supercontinent (Pangaea) and have slowly drifted apart over millions of years due to plate movement.
Who proposed the theory of continental drift?
The theory of continental drift was proposed by Alfred Wegener in the early 20th century.
What evidence supports the theory of continental drift?
Evidence includes the fit of continental coastlines (e.g., South America and Africa), fossil similarities across continents, and geological similarities between distant landmasses.
What is the lithosphere?
The lithosphere is the rigid outer layer of the Earth, consisting of the crust and the upper part of the mantle, which is divided into tectonic plates.
What is the asthenosphere?
The asthenosphere is a semi-fluid layer of the Earth’s mantle, located beneath the lithosphere, which allows tectonic plates to move over it.
What is the difference between the oceanic and continental crust?
Oceanic crust is thinner, denser, and composed mainly of basalt, while continental crust is thicker, less dense, and composed mainly of granite.
What is the Ring of Fire?
The Ring of Fire is a zone around the Pacific Ocean where a large number of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions occur due to tectonic plate movements.
What are hotspot volcanoes?
Hotspot volcanoes are formed by volcanic activity in areas not located at plate boundaries, where a mantle plume causes melting in the crust (e.g., the Hawaiian Islands).
What is a mantle plume?
A mantle plume is a column of hot, rising magma from deep within the Earth’s mantle that can lead to the formation of volcanic hotspots.
What is an earthquake?
An earthquake is the shaking of the Earth’s surface caused by the release of energy along a fault line due to tectonic plate movements.
What is the focus of an earthquake?
The focus of an earthquake is the point beneath the Earth’s surface where the earthquake originates, releasing energy.
What is the epicenter of an earthquake?
The epicenter is the point on the Earth’s surface directly above the focus, where the earthquake’s effects are usually felt most strongly.
What is the Richter scale?
The Richter scale is a logarithmic scale used to measure the magnitude of earthquakes, based on the amplitude of seismic waves.
What is a fault line?
A fault line is a crack or fracture in the Earth’s crust along which movement occurs due to tectonic plate interaction, leading to earthquakes.
What is a seismic wave?
Seismic waves are waves of energy that travel through the Earth’s layers, generated by earthquakes or volcanic activity.
What are primary seismic waves (P-waves)?
P-waves are fast-moving seismic waves that travel through both solids and liquids and are the first to be detected by seismographs.
What are secondary seismic waves (S-waves)?
S-waves are slower seismic waves that only travel through solids and are detected after P-waves.
What are Love waves?
Love waves are surface seismic waves that move the ground in a side-to-side motion, causing the most damage during earthquakes.
What is a volcanic eruption?
A volcanic eruption occurs when magma from beneath the Earth’s surface is expelled through a volcano, releasing lava, ash, and gases.
What are the primary gases released during volcanic eruptions?
Primary gases include water vapor (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), sulfur dioxide (SO2), and other trace gases.
What is a pyroclastic flow?
A pyroclastic flow is a fast-moving, hot mixture of volcanic ash, gas, and debris that travels down the slopes of a volcano during an explosive eruption.
What is the VEI (Volcanic Explosivity Index)?
The VEI is a scale used to measure the explosiveness of volcanic eruptions based on factors such as eruption volume, eruption height, and the amount of material released.
What is a caldera?
A caldera is a large, collapsed volcanic crater formed when a volcano erupts and the underlying magma chamber empties, causing the surface to collapse.
What is the significance of the 1980 Mount St. Helens eruption?
The eruption of Mount St. Helens in 1980 was a significant event in volcanic history, demonstrating the destructive power of a volcanic eruption and leading to improvements in eruption forecasting.
What is the significance of the 2010 Eyjafjallajökull eruption?
The 2010 eruption of Eyjafjallajökull in Iceland disrupted air travel across Europe due to ash clouds, highlighting the global impacts of volcanic events.
What are the factors that influence volcanic eruptions?
Factors include magma composition (viscosity), gas content, temperature, and the type of plate boundary (divergent, convergent, or hotspot).
What is an earthquake hazard zone?
An earthquake hazard zone is an area where the likelihood of earthquakes occurring is high, often related to tectonic plate boundaries.
What is a tsunami?
A tsunami is a series of large ocean waves caused by the sudden displacement of water, typically due to undersea earthquakes or volcanic eruptions.
How do tsunamis form?
Tsunamis are typically triggered by the sudden displacement of the ocean floor due to underwater earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, or landslides.
What is the difference between a convergent and divergent boundary in relation to volcanoes?
Convergent boundaries lead to explosive volcanic eruptions (subduction zones), while divergent boundaries typically result in less explosive eruptions (e.g., shield volcanoes at mid-ocean ridges).
What is the relationship between plate tectonics and mountain formation?
Mountains are often formed at convergent plate boundaries through processes such as subduction (e.g., the Himalayas) or continental collision (e.g., the Alps).
What is a divergent boundary between two continental plates?
A divergent boundary between two continental plates can lead to the formation of rift valleys, like the East African Rift Valley.
How does the theory of plate tectonics explain earthquakes?
Earthquakes occur when stress caused by plate movements is released along fault lines, producing seismic waves.
What are the main causes of earthquakes?
Earthquakes are caused by the movement of tectonic plates along faults, volcanic activity, or human-induced activities like mining or fracking.
How can plate tectonics lead to the formation of new landforms?
Plate tectonics can form new landforms through processes like volcanic eruptions (creating islands), mountain building (e.g., the Himalayas), and ocean floor spreading (e.g., mid-ocean ridges).
What is the significance of the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake?
The 2011 Tōhoku earthquake was a major undersea earthquake in Japan, which caused a devastating tsunami and led to a nuclear disaster at Fukushima.
How do plate tectonics influence global climate?
Plate tectonics can influence climate by affecting the position of continents, ocean currents, and the carbon cycle, leading to changes in global weather patterns over long periods.
What is a tectonic hot spot?
A tectonic hot spot is a fixed area of intense volcanic activity within a tectonic plate, often resulting in the formation of a chain of volcanic islands (e.g., the Hawaiian Islands).
How does the concept of plate tectonics explain the distribution of natural hazards?
Plate tectonics explains the distribution of earthquakes, volcanoes, and mountain ranges, as most of these occur along plate boundaries where plates interact.
What is the significance of the San Andreas Fault?
The San Andreas Fault is a major transform fault in California, where the Pacific and North American plates slide past each other, leading to frequent earthquakes.
What are plate margins?
Plate margins (or boundaries) are the edges where two tectonic plates meet. These margins are key areas where geological activity such as earthquakes, volcanoes, and mountain formation occur.
What are the three main types of plate margins?
The three main types of plate margins are divergent (constructive), convergent (destructive), and transform (conservative).
What happens at divergent plate margins?
At divergent plate margins, tectonic plates move away from each other, leading to the formation of new crust, often through volcanic activity. This occurs mostly at mid-ocean ridges.
What is an example of a divergent plate margin?
The Mid-Atlantic Ridge is a classic example of a divergent plate margin, where the Eurasian Plate and North American Plate are moving apart.
What happens at convergent plate margins?
At convergent plate margins, tectonic plates move towards each other. One plate may be forced beneath another (subduction), which can result in the formation of mountains, volcanoes, or deep ocean trenches.
What is subduction at a convergent plate margin?
Subduction occurs when one tectonic plate is forced beneath another at a convergent boundary. This often leads to the formation of deep ocean trenches and volcanic arcs.
What is an example of a convergent plate margin?
The boundary between the Indian Plate and the Eurasian Plate, which has formed the Himalayas, is a convergent plate margin.
What happens at transform plate margins?
At transform plate margins, plates slide past each other horizontally, causing frequent earthquakes along fault lines but typically not resulting in volcanic activity.
What is an example of a transform plate margin?
The San Andreas Fault in California is a famous example of a transform plate margin where the Pacific Plate and North American Plate slide past each other.
What geological features are associated with divergent margins?
Divergent margins are associated with mid-ocean ridges, rift valleys, and volcanic islands as new crust is formed.
What geological features are associated with convergent margins?
Convergent margins are associated with ocean trenches, volcanic arcs, mountain ranges, and earthquake activity.
What geological features are associated with transform margins?
Transform margins are associated with faults and earthquake activity, with no significant volcanic formation.
What is an ocean trench?
An ocean trench is a deep, narrow depression in the ocean floor formed by the subduction of one plate beneath another at a convergent plate boundary.
What is an example of an ocean trench?
The Mariana Trench, located in the western Pacific Ocean, is the deepest part of the world’s oceans and an example of an ocean trench formed by subduction.
What is a mid-ocean ridge?
A mid-ocean ridge is an underwater mountain range formed by the upwelling of magma at divergent plate boundaries, where tectonic plates are pulling apart.
What is the process of sea-floor spreading?
Sea-floor spreading occurs at divergent plate boundaries where new oceanic crust is formed by volcanic activity, pushing older crust away from the ridge.
How does subduction lead to volcanic activity?
When a plate is subducted beneath another at a convergent boundary, it melts in the mantle, and the resulting magma can rise to the surface, forming volcanoes.
What is the difference between oceanic and continental subduction?
Oceanic subduction occurs when an oceanic plate is forced beneath a continental plate (e.g., the Nazca Plate beneath the South American Plate), often forming volcanic arcs. Continental subduction typically forms mountain ranges without significant volcanic activity.
What is a volcanic island arc?
A volcanic island arc is a chain of islands formed by volcanic activity at a convergent plate margin, where oceanic plates are subducted beneath oceanic plates (e.g., the Japanese Islands).
What is an example of a continental-continental convergent boundary?
The collision between the Indian Plate and the Eurasian Plate, which formed the Himalayas, is an example of a continental-continental convergent boundary.
What is the difference between oceanic and continental crust?
Oceanic crust is denser and thinner, composed mainly of basalt, while continental crust is thicker, less dense, and made mostly of granite.
How does the movement of tectonic plates cause earthquakes?
Earthquakes occur when the built-up stress from plate movement is suddenly released along faults, generating seismic waves.
What is the focus of an earthquake?
The focus is the point inside the Earth where the earthquake originates, where the tectonic plates shift.
What is the epicenter of an earthquake?
The epicenter is the point on the Earth’s surface directly above the focus of the earthquake, where the seismic waves are felt most strongly.
What is a fault line?
A fault line is a fracture in the Earth’s crust where tectonic plates meet and move, leading to earthquake activity.
How do earthquakes occur at transform plate margins?
Earthquakes at transform margins occur when plates slide past one another, causing friction that builds up and is eventually released as seismic energy.
What is the San Andreas Fault?
The San Andreas Fault is a major transform fault in California, where the Pacific Plate and North American Plate slide past each other, causing frequent earthquakes.
What are the different types of volcanic eruptions associated with plate margins?
Volcanic eruptions at divergent boundaries are often less explosive, while eruptions at convergent boundaries, especially subduction zones, can be highly explosive.
How does the type of plate boundary affect the type of volcano formed?
At divergent boundaries, shield volcanoes tend to form, while at convergent boundaries, stratovolcanoes (composite volcanoes) form due to the more explosive nature of eruptions.
What are hotspot volcanoes?
Hotspot volcanoes occur away from plate boundaries, where a mantle plume causes volcanic activity, leading to the formation of volcanic islands (e.g., Hawaii).
How are mountain ranges formed at convergent plate margins?
Mountain ranges form when two continental plates collide, causing the crust to buckle and fold, creating high mountain ranges (e.g., the Himalayas).
How does the collision of oceanic and continental plates create a volcanic arc?
The denser oceanic plate is subducted beneath the less dense continental plate, causing magma to rise and form volcanoes, creating a volcanic island arc.
What is a rift valley?
A rift valley is a large, elongated depression formed by tectonic plates moving apart at divergent boundaries, often seen in continental regions (e.g., the East African Rift).
What is the role of convection currents in plate movements?
Convection currents in the Earth’s mantle drive the movement of tectonic plates by transferring heat, causing the plates to move either apart or towards each other.
How does a transform boundary lead to earthquakes?
At transform boundaries, two plates slide past each other, and the friction prevents smooth movement, building up stress that is released as earthquakes when it overcomes the friction.
What is the difference between the focus and the epicenter of an earthquake?
The focus is the point beneath the Earth’s surface where the earthquake originates, while the epicenter is the point on the surface directly above the focus.
What is an earthquake’s magnitude?
The magnitude of an earthquake measures the energy released during the earthquake, often measured on the Richter scale.
What is a volcanic eruption’s VEI (Volcanic Explosivity Index)?
The VEI measures the explosiveness of a volcanic eruption, based on the volume of erupted materials, eruption height, and duration.
What happens at an oceanic-oceanic convergent boundary?
At an oceanic-oceanic convergent boundary, one oceanic plate is subducted beneath the other, leading to the formation of deep ocean trenches and volcanic island arcs.
How do plate tectonics lead to the formation of ocean basins?
Ocean basins form at divergent plate boundaries where oceanic plates move apart, allowing magma to rise and form new oceanic crust, which widens the ocean basin.
What is an example of a continental-continental convergent boundary?
The collision between the Indian Plate and the Eurasian Plate is an example of a continental-continental convergent boundary, forming the Himalayas.
What is the significance of the Pacific Ring of Fire?
The Pacific Ring of Fire is a major area in the Pacific Ocean basin known for frequent earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, primarily due to subduction at convergent plate boundaries.
What is the role of mantle plumes in plate tectonics?
Mantle plumes are upwelling columns of hot magma from deep within the Earth, responsible for hotspot volcanism that occurs away from plate boundaries.
How do earthquakes occur at divergent plate margins?
Earthquakes at divergent margins occur as plates pull apart, creating faulting and cracking as new crust is formed.
What is a continental rift?
A continental rift is a crack or fault in a continent where divergent boundaries are beginning to pull the land apart, forming rift valleys (e.g., the East African Rift).
What is a destructive plate boundary?
A destructive plate boundary is another name for a convergent plate boundary where one plate is forced beneath another, leading to subduction, earthquakes, and volcanic activity.
How does an oceanic-oceanic convergent boundary form an island arc?
When two oceanic plates collide, one is subducted beneath the other, forming a volcanic island arc as magma rises to the surface.
What is the relationship between plate margins and natural hazards?
Plate margins are the locations where natural hazards such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and tsunamis are most likely to occur due to plate movements.
What is a constructive boundary?
A constructive boundary is another term for a divergent boundary, where two plates move apart and new crust is created.
How do plate margins impact human activities?
Plate margins can impact human activities through hazards such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and tsunamis, which can cause damage to infrastructure, loss of life, and economic disruption.
What are volcanic hazards?
Volcanic hazards are natural phenomena associated with volcanic eruptions, including lava flows, pyroclastic flows, ash clouds, lahars, and gas emissions that can pose risks to life, property, and the environment.
What is lava flow?
Lava flow is the movement of molten rock (lava) from a volcano during an eruption, which can destroy property and infrastructure, but typically moves slowly enough for people to evacuate.
What is pyroclastic flow?
Pyroclastic flow is a fast-moving current of hot gas, ash, and volcanic debris that flows down the slopes of a volcano, causing destruction and fatalities due to its speed and temperature.
What is an example of a volcanic eruption that produced a pyroclastic flow?
The eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD 79, which buried the Roman cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum under ash and pyroclastic flows, is a famous example.
What is a lahar?
A lahar is a mudflow or debris flow triggered by volcanic activity, typically occurring when volcanic ash and water mix, which can flow down river valleys and cause widespread destruction.
