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Geography Paper 1 > Hazards > Flashcards

Hazards Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the three types of natural hazard?

A

Geophysical
Atmospheric
Hydrological

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2
Q

What types of natural hazard are atmospheric?

A

Tropical storms
Droughts
Tornadoes

Can be monitored. Warnings can be given.

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3
Q

What types of natural hazard are geophysical?

A

Volcanic hazards
Seismic hazards

Can be monitored but accurate prediction is difficult

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4
Q

What types of natural hazard are hydrological?

A

Those that involve flooding and relate to the hydrosphere

Can be monitored. Warnings can be given.

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5
Q

What types of natural hazard are hydrological?

A

Those that involve flooding and relate to the hydrosphere

Can be monitored. Warnings can be given.

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6
Q

What is the difference between a hazard and a disaster?

A

A hazard is a potential threat to human life or property; a disaster is a hazard that seriously affects humans, exceeding a threshold level.

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7
Q

What factors can influence people’s perception of hazards?

A

Wealth (richer = more able to move)
Religion (hazards act of God to punish people)
Education
Past experience
Personality

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8
Q

What are some characteristic human responses to hazards?

A

Fatalism
Prediction
Adaption
Mitigation
Management
Risk sharing

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9
Q

What factors can affect the success of attempts to manage hazards?

A

Hazard incidence (how often)
Magnitude
Intensity
Distribution
Level of development

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10
Q

What is the Park Model?

A

A model that shows how responses progress invented in 1991. Also called the Disaster Response Curve.

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11
Q

Why is the Park Model useful?

A

Helps planners predict what resources needed for each stage.
Preparation for future hazard events.

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12
Q

What are the five stages on the Park Model?

A

Pre-disaster (before)
Disruption (during)
Relief (rescue)
Rehabilitation (resolve longer term)
Reconstruction (rebuilding and improving)

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13
Q

What is the Hazard Management Cycle?

A

The four stages authorities go through in managing hazards.

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14
Q

What are the four stages in the Hazard Management Cycle?

A

Mitigation (minimise impact)
Preparedness (planning)
Response (reaction)
Recovery (returning to normal)

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15
Q

What are the benefits of the Park Model?

A

Compare significance with normality
Chart stages
Indicate magnitude/severity
Compare two events
Help understand preparedness of community

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16
Q

What are the benefits of the Hazard Management Cycle?

A

Take into account steps taken before a hazard to mitigate
Considers how one hazard lead into the next
Helps chart stages

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17
Q

What are the limitations of the Park Model?

A

Doesn’t specify steps taken before event
No quantitative data
Doesn’t consider complexity of secondary impacts
No account for spatial variation
Overly simplistic

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18
Q

What are the limitations of the Hazard Management Cycle?

A

No indication of time scale
No quantitative data
Doesn’t consider complexity of secondary impacts
No account for spatial variation
Overly simplistic

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19
Q

What are the three main layers of the Earth?

A

Crust
Mantle
Core

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20
Q

What minerals does the Earth’s inner core contain?

A

Solid iron and nickel

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21
Q

What minerals does the Earth’s outer core contain?

A

Semi-molten iron and nickel

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22
Q

How thick is the Earth’s inner core?

A

1200 km

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23
Q

How thick is the Earth’s outer core?

A

2400 km

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24
Q

What temperature is the Earth’s inner core?

A

6000 Degrees Celsius

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25
Q

What temperature is the Earth’s outer core?

A

4,400 Degrees Celsius

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26
Q

How thick is the Earth’s mantle?

A

3,000 km

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27
Q

What temperature is the Earth’s mantle?

A

1,000 - 5,000 Degrees Celsius

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28
Q

What minerals make up the Earth’s mantle?

A

Magnesium
Iron
Silicon
Oxygen

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29
Q

What are the properties of the Earth’s mantle?

A

Hard
Elastic
Cracks
Ductile

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30
Q

What are the three subdivisions of the Earth’s mantle?

A

Mesosphere
Asthenosphere
Lithosphere

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31
Q

What are the properties of the mesosphere?

A

Rigid due to pressure
Closest to the core

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32
Q

What are the properties of the asthenosphere?

A

Ductile zone
Highly viscous
Mechanically weak
Semi-molten state

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33
Q

What are the properties of the lithosphere?

A

Furthest from core
Brittle crust / top part of upper mantle
Coolest and most rigid part of the Earth

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34
Q

How thick is the Earth’s crust?

A

5 - 70 km
1% of Earth’s volume

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35
Q

What is Mohorovicic Discontinuity?

A

Also called the Moho.
A discrete jump in seismic wave velocities.

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36
Q

How deep is the Moho?

A

25 - 60 km beneath the continents
5 - 8 km beneath the ocean floor

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37
Q

What was Alfred Wegener’s Continental Drift theory?

A

Different large landmasses of the Earth (continents) fitted together as Pangaea. They drifted apart over 200 million years.

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38
Q

What geological evidence supports Continental Drift theory?

A

Good fit of continents.
Similar rock types next to Atlantic Ocean.
Appalachian Mountains North America and mountains in Scotland and Scandinavia has similar age, structure, rock type.

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39
Q

What biological evidence supports Continental Drift theory?

A

Identical fossils found directly opposite on widely spread continents.
Inc. fossils of creatures who could not swim.
Fossils of both plants and animals.

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40
Q

What climatological evidence supports Continental Drift theory?

A

Glacial till of same age found in S Africa, S America, India and Australia.
All places where it would be difficult to explain occurrence of glaciation.

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41
Q

What evidence has been put forward to support continental drift theory after the work of Wegener?

A

The Mid Atlantic Ridge
Sea Floor Spreading
Palaeomagnetism

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42
Q

What is Palaeomagnetism?

A

Studying the rocks formed by underwater volcanic eruptions in relation to the Earth’s magnetic field.

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43
Q

How do convection currents work?

A

Lower parts of the asthenosphere heat up, become less dense and rise.
They cool down at the top, become dense and fall.
Friction drags on the base of tectonic plates, moving them.

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44
Q

What is slab pull?

A

At destructive plate margins, denser crust is forced under less dense crust.
The sinking of the plate edge pulls the rest of the plate towards the boundary.

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45
Q

What is ridge push / gravitational sliding?

A

Constructive plate margins.
Magma rises to the surface.
Hot new crust.
Surrounding rocks heat and expand. Rise above the surface of surrounding crust forming a slope.
New crust cools, becomes denser, gravity bringing it downslope, away from plate margin.
This puts pressure on the plates moving them apart.

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46
Q

What is seafloor spreading?

A

Plates diverge.
Magma rises up to fill the gap, then cools to form new crust.
Over time, the new crust is dragged apart and even more new crust forms between it.
The seafloor gets wider.
Creates mid-ocean ridges.

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47
Q

What are the two types of tectonic plate?

A

Oceanic
Continental

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48
Q

What type of rock makes oceanic plates?

A

High-density basaltic rock

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49
Q

How thick are oceanic plates?

A

7 - 10 km

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50
Q

What type of rock makes continental plates?

A

Less dense granitic rock

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51
Q

How thick are continental plates?

A

25 - 75 km

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52
Q

What occurs at conservative plate margins?

A

Plates move past each other.
They lock together.
Pressure and potential energy builds up.
The plates jerk past each other.
Energy released as an earthquake.
E.g. Pacific and North American plates San Andreas fault California.

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53
Q

What occurs at constructive plate margins?

A

Convection currents diverge two plates.
A gap is created betwixt them.
Magma rises up to fill the gap.
New crust created as the plate pull away.
Rift valleys and ocean ridges can form.

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54
Q

What occurs at destructive plate margins?

A

A denser plate slides beneath a less dense plate.
Crust is destroyed as one plate dives under another at the subduction zone.
The rocks catch against each other.
Pressures builds until the plates can’t take the stress.
The plates slip past each other, which can cause both plates to move resulting in tremors.

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55
Q

What occurs at continental-oceanic destructive / destructive subduction plate margins?

A

Denser oceanic plate subducts below the continental.
The plate subducting leaves a deep ocean trench .
Fold mountains occur when sediment is pushed upwards during subduction.
Oceanic crust melted as it subducts into the asthenosphere.
The extra magma created causes pressure to build up.
Pressurised magma forces through weak areas in continental plate
Explosive, high pressure composite volcanoes erupt through continental plate.

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56
Q

What occurs at oceanic-oceanic destructive plate margins?

A

Heavier plate subducts leaving an ocean trench. Fold mountains will also occur.
Built up pressure causes underwater volcanoes bursting through oceanic plate.
Lava cools and creates new land called island arcs.

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57
Q

What occurs at continental-continental destructive /destructive collision plate margins?

A

Both plates are not as dense as oceanic so lots of pressure builds.
Ancient oceanic crust is subducted slightly, but there is no subduction of continental crust.
Pile up of continental crust on top of lithosphere due to pressure between plates.
Fold mountains formed from piles of continental crust.

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58
Q

How are fold mountains formed?

A

Destructive subduction or destructive collision plate boundaries.
Plates move together, sediment pushed into folds between them.

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59
Q

What is are two good examples of fold mountains?

A

The Andes mountains. Nazca plate and S. American plate subduction.
Himalayas. Indian Plate and Eurasian Plate collision.

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60
Q

How are island arcs formed?

A

Destructive subduction boundaries.
Descending plate melts. Material rises towards surface as plutons of magma.
These reach surface forming volcanoes.
These may erupt offshore, causing a line of volcanoes.

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61
Q

What is a good example of an island arc?

A

The Marianas Island Arc western Pacific Ocean.
Pacific Plate and Philippine Sea Plate

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62
Q

How are deep sea trenches formed?

A

Destructive subduction plate boundaries.
Oceanic plate subducted under continental plate.
The downwarping of the oceanic plate forms a very deep part of the ocean: a trench.

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63
Q

What is a good example of a deep sea trench?

A

Peru-Chile trench. Nazca plate and S. American plate.
Marianas trench. Pacific Plate and Philippine Sea Plate.

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64
Q

How are volcanoes formed?

A

Constructive or destructive subduction plate margins.
Melted plate rises to the surface as magma.

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65
Q

How are ocean ridges formed?

A

Constructive margins.
Two oceanic plates diverge.
As pressure is reduced, semi-molten magma of mantle melts. Rises up into gap between plates, forming a ridge.

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66
Q

What is a good example of an ocean ridge?

A

The Mid-Atlantic Ridge.
Between the North American Plate and the Eurasian Plate.

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67
Q

How are rift valleys formed?

A

Constructive margins.
Two continental plates diverge.
Crust thins and is heated and bulges, forming cracks.
An area of crust drops down between parallel faults.

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68
Q

What is a good example of a rift valley?

A

East African Rift.
Somalian and Nubian plates.

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69
Q

What is a magma plume?

A

A vertical column of extra-hot magma that rises up from the mantle.

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70
Q

How do magma plumes form volcanoes?

A

A magma plume remains stationary over time but crust moves above it.
Volcanic activity in the part of the crust that was above the magma plume decreases as it moves away.
New volcanoes form in the part of the crust that is now above the magma plume.
As the crust continues to move, a chain of volcanoes is formed.

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71
Q

What is a good example of magma plumes that have formed volcanoes?

A

The chain of islands that makes up Hawaii was formed b a magma plume around 500,000 years ago.

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72
Q

How can a constructive plate margin affect vulcanicity?

A

Basaltic lava is formed here
Very hot and low viscosity (very runny)
Flows easily and quickly
Frequent eruptions but not violent

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73
Q

How can a destructive plate margin affect vulcanicity?

A

Andesitic and rhyolitic lava formed here
Cooler and more viscous than basaltic, flows less easily
Intermittent, short-lived eruptions
At subduction zones, melting plate forming magma results in a volcano
The viscous lava can cause blockages, causing pressure
This is cleared by violent eruptions

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74
Q

What are the main primary volcanic hazards?

A

Pyroclastic flows / nuées ardentes
Lava flows
Volcanic gases
Pyroclastic and ash fallout

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75
Q

What are the main secondary volcanic hazards caused by primary hazards?

A

Mudflows / lahars
Acid rain

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76
Q

What is hazardous about pyroclastic flow / nuées ardentes?

A

Plume of hot ash and gas ejected out of a volcano.
Can exceed 1,100°C.
High speeds over 300 km/h.
Flow 10-15 km.

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77
Q

What is hazardous about lava flows?

A

Rarely cause injury due to relatively low velocity.
Unstoppable; damage crops.
Up to 10 km/h.
Can travel tens of kilometres.

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78
Q

What is hazardous about volcanic gases?

A

Lava contains gases such as carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide, released into the atmosphere when a volcano erupts.
Some of these gases can be harmful to humans and animals if breathed in.

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79
Q

What is hazardous about pyroclastic and ash fallout?

A

Pyroclastic fallout is material that has been ejected from a volcano during eruption and falls back to ground.
When fallout consists mostly of ash it’s ash fallout.
Fallout consists of material of a range of sizes, can travel thousands of kilometres from volcano.
Heavier particles deposited earlier than light ones.
Large pieces of falling tephra can damage buildings and kill and injur people.

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80
Q

What is hazardous about tephra?

A

It’s solid material of varying grain size ranging from volcanic bombs to ash, all ejected into the atmosphere, potentially causing injury to people.

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81
Q

What is hazardous about mudflows / lahars?

A

Occur when volcanic material mixes with large amounts of water (from rainfall or melted ice).
Move very quickly (over 80 km/h).
Travel tens of kilometres.
Can bury or destroy natural habitats, settlements and infrastructure).

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82
Q

What is hazardous about acid rain?

A

Volcanic gases can react with water vapour in the atmosphere, which then falls as acid rain. E.g. sulphur dioxide reacts with water to form weak sulphuric acid.
This can damage ecosystems, and cause stone and metal to deteriorate, damaging buildings, bridges, statues etc.

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83
Q

How can the spatial distribution of volcanic hazards be described?

A

Along constructive or destructive plate boundaries, or located on hotspots.
The Ring of Fire is an area of high volcanic and earthquake activity located in the Pacific, and the majority of large volcanoes occur within this 25,000 mile belt.

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84
Q

How is the magnitude of vulcanicity measured?

A

The Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI).
The more powerful, the more explosive . The scale is logarithmic from VEI 2 and onwards.
Multiple features are considered when calculating the VEI, including how much tephra is erupted, how long it lasts, how high the tephra is ejected etc.

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85
Q

What is the general frequency of volcanic hazards?

A

Frequency of eruptions varies per volcano. Volcanoes are classed as either active, dormant or extinct.
An estimated 50-60 volcanoes erupt each month, meaning volcanic eruptions are always frequent (and some volcanoes erupt constantly). Usually, a higher frequency eruption means the eruptions are effusive whereas low frequency means the eruptions are explosive.

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86
Q

What is the general regularity of volcanic hazards?

A

Volcanic eruptions are regular in that the eruptions on each type of boundary are similar (e.g. eruptions on destructive boundaries will regularly be explosive).
Sometimes eruptions may be irregular and not fit patterns.

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87
Q

What is the general predictability of volcanic hazards?

A

Some volcanoes erupt at very regular intervals, whereas other may be dormant for hundreds or thousands of years then erupt several times in quick succession.

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88
Q

What are the three types of response employed to reduce the impacts of future hazards long term?

A

Prevention
Preparation
Adaption

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89
Q

What volcano in which LIC erupted in January 2002?

A

Mt Nyriangongo
Democratic Republic of Congo

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90
Q

What were the primary environmental impacts of the eruption of Mt Nyriangongo?

A

Lava flows caused fires
Melting runway produced poisonous gases

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91
Q

What were the secondary environmental impacts of the eruption of Mt Nyriangongo?

A

Rainwater became acidic

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92
Q

What were the primary social impacts of the eruption of Mt Nyriangongo?

A

80,000 made homeless immediately
Emergency aid couldn’t land at airport
Lava destroyed 14 villages on day one
180 people killed by lava and gases
20% homes destroyed
Power stations exploded
Hospital destroyed

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93
Q

How many people in total died as a result of the eruption of Mt Nyriangongo?

A

An estimated 250 people

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94
Q

What were the secondary social impacts of the eruption of Mt Nyriangongo?

A

Parts of Goma buried by up to 3m of lava
Rioting in Goma as food ran out
Refugee camps
400,000 evacuations
Cholera outbreak

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95
Q

What were the primary economic impacts of the eruption of Mt Nyriangongo?

A

Emergency vehicles buried under lava unable to respond
Airport severely damaged forced to close

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96
Q

What were the secondary economic impacts of the eruption of Mt Nyriangongo?

A

Widespread unemployment
Local shops closed
Businesses destroyed.

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97
Q

Why do people stay in Goma despite the hazardous volcanic activity?

A

Nowhere else to go
Fatalism
Geothermal energy
Nearby soil often rich in minerals for farming opportunities

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98
Q

What are scientists trying to do to prepare for future volcanic hazards in DRC?

A

Seismographic detection

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99
Q

What problems remain in Goma after the eruption of Mt Nyriangongo?

A

Widespread poverty
Emergency services not up to standard
Lack of satellite technology
Lack of education about volcanoes

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100
Q

Where is Eyjafjallajokull located?

A

South Iceland, North-West Europe, Atlantic Ocean

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101
Q

What tectonic plate is responsible for the eruption of Mt Nyriangongo?

A

The African plate which is moving apart.

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102
Q

Which tectonic plates are responsible for the eruption of Eyjafjallajokull?

A

Eurasian and North American plates

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103
Q

What was the population of DRC?

A

85 million

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104
Q

What was the population of Iceland?

A

345,000

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105
Q

What were two secondary economic impacts of the eruption of Eyjafjallajokull?

A

Increased tourism.
Cancellation of flights all across Europe.

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106
Q

What were two primary impacts of the eruption of Eyjafjallajokull?

A

Flooding due to ice caps melting.
Ash released into atmosphere.

107
Q

How come nobody died as a result of the large eruption of Eyjafjallajokull?

A

Iceland has a low population so it wasn’t difficult to evacuate when the volcano started to show signs that it would erupt.

108
Q

What impacts did the eruption of Eyjafjallajokull have locally?

A

Crops ruined.
Ash provided nutrition long term.

109
Q

What are the five hazards associated with seismic activity?

A

Earthquakes
Tsunamis
Liquefaction
Landslides

110
Q

How do earthquakes occur?

A

Tension builds up at all three types of plate margin.
The plates jerk past each other sending shockwaves - the earthquake.
These spread out from the focus.

111
Q

What is the epicentre?

A

The point on the Earth’s surface where the earthquake is felt first, above the focus.

112
Q

What is the focus?

A

The point inside the crust where the pressure is released.

113
Q

What are P-waves?

A

Primary waves
Fastest type
Shake the earth backwards and forwards in the direction they travel (longitudinal).
Move through solids and liquids.

114
Q

What are S-waves?

A

Secondary waves
Half the speed of P-waves
Move with a sideways motion.
Vibrate at right angle to direction of travel (transverse).
Cannot move through liquids.
Do much more damage than P-waves.

115
Q

What are L-waves?

A

Love waves
Travel much nearer to the surface than P or S-waves
Much more destructive
Transverse

116
Q

What relationship does the depth focus have to damage?

A

Shallower focus (0-70km) cause the greatest damage
Intermediate (70-300km)
Deep focus (300-700km) does the least

117
Q

How do earthquakes cause tsunamis?

A

The earthquakes cause the seabed to move, which displaces water.
The greater movement of the seabed, the greater volume of water displaced, and the bigger the wave produced.

118
Q

What are the characteristics of tsunamis?

A

More powerful nearer the coast
Lose energy as they move towards land
Travel very fast; don’t give much warning
Can travel at over 700 km/h

119
Q

How do earthquakes cause landslides and avalanches?

A

Shaking of the ground can dislodge rock, soil or snow, causing landslides or avalanches that move downslope rapidly.
Shaking can also loosen ground material, allowing water to infiltrate, its weight triggering a landslide even after tremors have stopped.

120
Q

How do earthquakes cause soil liquefaction?

A

When soil is saturated with water, the vibrations of an earthquake cause it to act like a liquid.
This makes the soil weaker and easier to deform, so it’s more likely to subside, especially with heavy weight on top e.g. buildings.

121
Q

How can the magnitude and frequency of earthquakes be summarised?

A

Hundreds of low magnitude earthquakes occur around the world every day.
High magnitude earthquakes occur far less often.
The number of earthquakes varies from year to year.

122
Q

How can the randomness and regularity of earthquakes be summarised?

A

Earthquakes and other seismic hazards don’t follow any clear pattern or trend. Their occurrence is largely random.

123
Q

Are earthquakes predictable to any degree?

A

Scientists can monitor activity of tectonic plates to predict which areas are at risk.
But it’s currently impossible to tell when an earthquake will strike a place and its magnitude.

124
Q

What is the relationship between the nature of an earthquake and the margin type it occurs at?

A

High magnitude earthquakes occur at destructive margins.
Subduction causes a build up of huge pressure.
Constructive margins tend to have lower magnitude earthquakes than destructive or conservative margins.

125
Q

Which two places are earthquakes more common at?

A

The San Andreas fault (conservative)
The Japan trench (destructive)

126
Q

What was the magnitude of the Christchurch earthquake of 2011?

A

6.3 on Richter Scale

127
Q

What was the magnitude of the Haiti earthquake of 2010?

A

7.0 on Richter Scale

128
Q

What city was affected by the Haiti earthquake of 2010?

A

Port-au-Prince (capital)

129
Q

Where was the epicentre of the Christchurch earthquake?

A

40 km west of Christchurch

130
Q

Where was the epicentre of the Haiti earthquake?

A

8 km east of the centre of Port-au-Prince

131
Q

What time of day did the 2011 Christchurch earthquake strike at?

A

12:51

132
Q

What time of day did the 2010 Haiti earthquake strike at?

A

16:53

133
Q

What was NZ’s GNI per capita in 2011?

A

$31,000 USD

134
Q

What was Haiti’s GNI per capita in 2010?

A

$2,500 USD

135
Q

What was NZ’s literacy rate in 2011?

A

99%

136
Q

What was Haiti’s literacy rate in 2010?

A

60%

137
Q

What was NZ’s doctors per thousand in 2011?

A

3.4

138
Q

What was Haiti’s doctors per thousand in 2010?

A

0.65

139
Q

What is NZ’s religious background?

A

50% nonreligious
37% Christian - more likely to be fatalist

140
Q

What is Haiti’s religious background?

A

55% Catholic - more likely to be fatalist
10% nonreligious

141
Q

How are hazards likely to be perceived in NZ?

A

Likely to have a better education and understanding of the level of risk involved with earthquakes, and will therefore take measures to protect and prepare for earthquakes.

142
Q

How are hazards likely to be perceived in Haiti?

A

Government well aware of earthquakes
But population of Haiti will be unlikely to understand the level of risk due to poor education.
Less likely to take steps to protect themselves from the dangers of earthquakes.

143
Q

What was NZ’s past experience of hazards in 2011?

A

Buildings and infrastructure was weakened a year earlier by a 7.1 magnitude earthquake (Canterbury, September 2010).
Earthquakes in 1869, 1888, 1901.

144
Q

What was Haiti’s past experience of hazards in 2010?

A

1946 earthquake killed 1800.
Tropical cyclones cause frequent flooding and widespread damage. Several in 2008 killed 800.

145
Q

Where is NZ located in relation to tectonic plates?

A

An earthquake prone country; lies on the ‘ring of fire’, which is geologically active.
Lies at the edge of both the Australian and Pacific tectonic plates.
20,000 earthquakes occur every year, only 20 of which are felt.

146
Q

Where is Haiti located in relation to tectonic plates?

A

Lies at the junction of the North America and Caribbean plates and between two fault zones: the Septentrional zone to the north and the Enriquillo-Plantain Garden fault that runs directly under Port-au-Prince.

147
Q

What was the main cause of the 2011 Christchurch earthquake?

A

Destructive plate boundary.
The rupture of a 8km2 fault running east-northeast at a depth of 1-2km beneath the southern edge of the Avon-Heathcote Estuary.

148
Q

What was the main cause of the 2010 Haiti earthquake?

A

Conservative plate boundary.
The release of a 250 year old frictional lock, in the Enriquillo-Plantain Garden fault.

149
Q

What were some of the primary impacts of the 2011 Christchurch earthquake?

A

Hundreds of kilometres of water and sewage pipes damaged.
50%+ of Central City buildings severely damaged.
Part (20 football fields’ worth) of the country’s longest glacier was broken off creating a large iceberg.
80% of the city without electricity. Damage to roads through liquefaction – mobility difficult
City cathedral (big tourist attraction) lost its spire.

150
Q

What were some of the primary impacts of the 2010 Haiti earthquake?

A

Public telephone system unavailable.
Control tower at Toussaint L’Ouverture International Airport damaged.
Port severely damaged so that aid supplies couldn’t be transported through the harbour.
All hospitals in capital destroyed or severely damaged.
250,000 houses and 30,000 commercial buildings collapsed or severely damaged.

151
Q

What were some of the secondary impacts of the 2011 Christchurch earthquake?

A

Schools sharing classrooms because of damage to school buildings.
Christchurch could no longer host Rugby World Cup matches so lost the tourism and income benefits they would bring.
Businesses put out of action for long periods causing loss of income and jobs.
3m high tsunami.

152
Q

What were some of the secondary impacts of the 2010 Haiti earthquake?

A

Mass migration occurred, hundreds of Haitians tried to get off island after earthquake.
As many as 50,000 Haitians ended up living in survivor camps.
Grew by thousands one the US Army started distributing food and water there.
Sanitation in temporary camps deteriorated and became a major concern.
The UN says malaria and dengue became widespread in Haiti during the rainy season.

153
Q

How many deaths resulted from the 2011 Christchurch earthquake?

A

181, 115 of which were in the Canterbury Television building.
2,000 people injured.

154
Q

How many people died as a result of the 2010 Haiti earthquake?

A

Between 10,000 and 316,000 people.
The Haitian government accused of inflating the figure to get more aid.
Reliable sources say 160,000, with at least 300,000 injuries.

155
Q

What were the political impacts of the 2011 Christchurch earthquake?

A

PM announced inquiry into collapse of buildings that had been signed off as safe after the previous earthquake.

156
Q

What were political impacts of the 2010 Haiti earthquake?

A

Many government buildings damaged or destroyed, inc. the Palace of Justice, the National Assembly and Supreme Court.
National Palace severely damaged, but President and his wife escaped unscathed.

157
Q

How did NGOs assist in the short term response to the 2011 Christchurch earthquake?

A

New Zealand Red Cross launched appeal to help victims.

158
Q

What were some of the short term responses to the Christchurch earthquake?

A

Australian police joined forces with New Zealand police.
Search & rescue teams from Australia, UK, USA, Japan, Taiwan, China and Singapore.
Electricity companies worked around the clock to restore power to areas that had been cut off.
Electricity restored to 80% of households within 5 days, 95% within 2 weeks.
27,000 chemical toilets flown in.

159
Q

What were some of the short term responses to the Haiti earthquake?

A

Haitian government had insufficient resources, asked for help from the international community in the first few hours and days.
International search & rescue teams worldwide stepped in.
Over the first weekend immediately after the earthquake 130,000 food packets and 70,000 water containers distributed to Haitians.
Nearly 2000 rescuers present from 43 different groups, with 161 search dogs.
1000-bed hospital ship USNS Comfort anchored just off Haiti.
2 million people received aid.

160
Q

What were some of the long term responses to the Christchurch earthquake?

A

Chair memorial placed in city centre to let residents mourn.
The New Zealand Defence Force provided equipment, transport, evacuation, food and water aid to 1000 people who were made homeless.
As buildings were being repaired shipping containers were converted into shops and banks.

161
Q

What were some of the long term responses to the Haiti earthquake?

A

The EU gave $330m and the World Bank waived the country’s debt repayments for 5 years.
Nearby countries have taken on refugees on a long term basis.

162
Q

What is the best way countries can prepare for earthquakes?

A

Risk areas identified through tectonics.
Prediction attempts are questionable.
Monitoring groundwater and release of radon gas
Fault lines monitored
Local magnetic fields measured
Search and rescue and fire response units

163
Q

How can earthquakes be mitigated against?

A

Through prevention, preparedness, and adaption.

164
Q

How can adaption be used to minimise the risk of seismic hazards?

A

Buildings built from strong and flexible materials
Buildings can be designed to reduce vulnerability to tsunamis e.g. tall, strong buildings allow people to escape quickly, raised, open foundations less likely to be damaged.

165
Q

How can people be protected from the effects of earthquakes?

A

Hazard-resistant structures
Education
Fire prevention
Emergency services
Land-use planning
Aid
Insurance
Tsunami protection

166
Q

What date did the Christchurch earthquake occur on?

A

22 February 2011

167
Q

What date did the Haiti earthquake occur on?

A

12 January 2010

168
Q

What are the two main scales used to measure the magnitude of an earthquake?

A

Richter Scale
Mercalli Scale

169
Q

What is the Richter Scale?

A

A logarithmic scale that measures the strength of earthquakes.

170
Q

What is the Mercalli Scale?

A

A 12-point scale that measures the intensity of an earthquake event and its impact based on observable earthquake damage.

171
Q

What instrument is used to show seismic activity?

A

A seismometer responds to ground noises and shaking caused by quakes.

172
Q

What is a tropical storm?

A

A rotating storm consisting of low air pressure, heavy rain and strong winds. 200-700km in diameter.

173
Q

What are the three local names for tropical storms?

A

Typhoon - South-East Asia
Cyclone - Indian Ocean / South Asia
Hurricane - the Americas

174
Q

How are tropical storms formed?

A

Temperatures above 26.5’C.
Ocean depth greater than 70m.
Rising evaporated air cools and condenses.
Clouds form and merge to form thunderstorms.
Latent heat.
Latitudes at least 5’ north or south of the equator.
Coriolis Effect makes the storm spin.
Surface winds drawn in.
Trade winds from the Hadley Cells move the storm at speeds of around 20mph.

175
Q

What percentage of people live within 100km of coastline?

A

40%

176
Q

How does the socio-economic status of New Orleans compare with the rest of the USA?

A

New Orleans GNI per capita is $37,000; US is $57,000.
This affects level of education and ability to prepare.
Insurance premiums are too high to afford in the areas at lower elevation that are at greater risk from flood events

177
Q

How does the level of education of New Orleans compare with the rest of the USA?

A

New Orleans literacy rate is 85%. US avg is 94.8%.

178
Q

How does the occupation/employment status of New Orleans compare with the rest of the USA?

A

Being surrounded by unskilled workers with low literacy rates doesn’t develop and understanding of the hazard.

179
Q

What are the religious/cultural and ethnic background characteristics of New Orleans?

A

67.3% black.
Christian groups ‘In God We Trust’.
Fatalist attitude makes you vulnerable.

180
Q

How did family/marital statuses make people vulnerable to Hurricane Katrina?

A

Larger than average family sizes and single-parent families higher than US national average. Children more vulnerable. Difficult to escape, easier to stay and hope for the best.

181
Q

How did people’s past experiences make them vulnerable to Hurricane Katrina?

A

Inhabitants had the false sense that they were safe as there had been no major flood events in recent times (with Katrina being the biggest flood since 1927)

182
Q

What were the general values, personalities and expectations of the people of New Orleans in 2005?

A

People placed their trust in FEMA and believed they would provide assistance within 48 hours as promised.
However, this didn’t happen as many areas were not provided with help until 4 days later

183
Q

What political factors made New Orleans vulnerable in 2005?

A

President Bush’s government had cut funding for FEMA due to increased investment in the ‘war on terror’ (US invasion of Iraq and Afghanistan). This meant that FEMA lacked the funding to enlarge the levees to protect against future storms ($2bn was required to protect the city)

184
Q

What physical factors made New Orleans vulnerable in 2005?

A

50% of the city is below sea level due to its bowl-shaped topography.The magnitude of the storm was Cat-5 (intense heavy rain, strong winds, 8.5m storm surge).
The city lies adjacent to the Gulf of Mexico, a large and warm body of water located at the perfect latitude for the Coriolis effect to take place, aiding the formation of a tropical storm.

185
Q

What were the primary environmental impacts of Hurricane Katrina?

A

Animal and plant habitats lost.
Sea fish killed by silting.
Debris blown, littering land and sea.

186
Q

What were the primary social impacts of Hurricane Katrina?

A

1 million people became refugees due to flooding.
1386 people died, the vast majority from drowning.

187
Q

What were the primary economic impacts of Hurricane Katrina?

A

$200 billion damage directly linked to flooding and strong winds.
Farmers crops destroyed.

188
Q

What were the primary political impacts of Hurricane Katrina?

A

Ineffective governance led to racial tensions whereby the non-white community felt unsupported by the government.

189
Q

What were the secondary environmental impacts of Hurricane Katrina?

A

Salt-water contamination affected freshwater habitats.

190
Q

What were the secondary economic impacts of Hurricane Katrina?

A

$2.5 billion spent on cleaning up waste and debris.
Salt water contamination of soil meant farmers lost productive agricultural land. Took 5 years to decontaminate.
Damaged oil rigs in Gulf of Mexico put fuel prices up.

191
Q

What were the secondary social impacts of Hurricane Katrina?

A

55,000 properties damaged beyond repair, people not returning for at least 6 months. Took until 2022 for population to return to pre-disaster levels.
Law and order broke down with violence and looting for supplies.

192
Q

What were the secondary political impacts of Hurricane Katrina?

A

Changes in governance to support the wider community of New Orleans.
BLM movement.
The failings of government in preparing before and protection during Katrina led to a lack of faith in FEMA, Washington and State Governor Kathleen Blanco.

193
Q

What was the sequence of events that took place during Hurricane Katrina?

A

Katrina developed as a tropical depression approaching the Southern tip of Florida rom the south east. Sea surface waters over 28’C over Carribean.
Hit New Orleans 29 August 2005.
Maximum sustained winds were 175mph. Gusts 215mph.
People evacuated to Superdome Stadium.
Four protective levees breached. 8.5m high storm surges.
Mississippi River burst banks adding floodwater.

194
Q

What were the main factors that gave the area of Gentilly a disadvantage over other areas?

A

78.2% African American underrepresented in govt. 15.6% Caucasian.
Lower value land.
Lower elevation makes insurance more expensive.
Lower vehicle ownership rates.
Lack of faith in local govt (Kathleen Blanco) and national govt (George W Bush).
Victims of government corruption.
Reliant on state-organised evacuation.
Low social mobility.

195
Q

What made Uptown a less risky place to be during Hurricane Katrina?

A

21% African American. 72.6% Caucasian represented by hegemony- faith in govt.
Higher value land, higher elevation, higher vehicle ownership.
Access to insurance risk sharing.

196
Q

What were the short-term responses to Hurricane Katrina?

A

Local and national govt facilitated evacuation of 80% of population.
Louisiana Superdome opened as a place of refuge. Not enough provisions for 16,000 so 3 people died there.
7,000 active-duty troops deployed from national guard for relief and to restore law and order.
Food parcels from countries such as the UK.
$1.8bn from Red Cross, more than 9/11.

197
Q

What were the long-term response to Hurricane Katrina?

A

220 miles of floodwalls were strengthened or replaced, should the area flood again.
The US congress supplied $16.7bn to rebuild or repair damaged infrastructure
FEMA had over 10,000 houses cleared, displacing families
The NOAA built new observation buoys and expanded their satellite network to predict future hurricanes
The Red Cross provided medical help for 600,000 and mental health support for 826,000

198
Q

What were the attempted preparations for Hurricane Katrina?

A

As the storm escalated to a Category 3, Bush declared a state of emergency in Louisiana, Alabama and Mississippi 2 days before the hurricane made landfall
On August 28th, the National Weather Service in Slidell, Louisiana predicted ‘devastating’ damage.
The Waterford Nuclear Power Station was shut on August 8th
The possibility of a direct hit on New Orleans rose from 17% on August 26th to 29% on August 28th.
On August 28th, shortly after the storm rose to a Category 5, New Orleans Mayor, Ray Nagin, ordered a citywide evacuation.

199
Q

What were the attempted mitigations for Hurricane Katrina?

A

The National Hurricane Centre in Florida (USA) are able to access data from geostationary satellites and maintain 24hr surveillance of the storms via weather aircraft. Information is combined with computer simulations to coordinate necessary evacuations
Evacuations have a huge economic cost in the USA, with the evacuation of 1km of coastline costing $1m due to losses in business and tourism, and the price of provisions and protection.

200
Q

How has adaption been employed in New Orleans?

A

3 stage evacuation plan established 50, 40, 30 before.
Risk sharing (property insurance).
Extensive flood defences. 350 miles of floodgates and levees.

201
Q

How did Typhoon Haiyan originate?

A

An area of low-pressure south east of the Philippines on Nov 2nd 2013.
Progressed into a tropical depression and became a storm on the 4th.
The system began a period of rapid intensification that brought it to typhoon intensity by the 5th.
It made landfall on 7th, the most powerful ever to do so.

202
Q

What development factors made the Philippines vulnerable to Typhoon Haiyan?

A

$4700 GDP per capita.
48.7% literacy rate.
1.15 doctors per thousand.
7% unemployed.

203
Q

What was the cultural/religious background of the Philippines?

A

Catholicism dominant.
Likely to be fatalists.

204
Q

How did the family/marital status of the Philippines affect vulnerability?

A

Extended families support each other.

205
Q

How did past experience of the Philippines affect vulnerability?

A

Most exposed country in the world to tropical storms. Government experienced with tropical storms. Far more than New Orleans.

206
Q

How did physical factors affect the vulnerability of the Philippines?

A

7641 islands allows typhoon to sustain itself with energy.
5m above sea level. SL rising 20cm per year.
24-31’C optimal temperature for tropical storm formation.
150-185mph winds.

207
Q

What were the primary social impacts of Typhoon Haiyan?

A

Killed 6300 and affected 11 million people
The Philippines faced a humanitarian crisis as the typhoon made 1.9 million people homeless and displaced 6,000,000
The UN feared the spread of disease due to the lack of food, water, shelter, and medication
Casualties were reported due to a lack of first aid, medication, and equipment in some areas
Areas that were less affected reported their populations double due to the influx of refugees into the city

208
Q

What were the primary economic impacts of Typhoon Haiyan?

A

The impact of Haiyan on the Filipino economy is estimated at $2.9bn
The major rice and sugar producing areas in the Philippines were destroyed.
Coconut plantations were destroyed.
The Philippine government estimates that about 175,000 acres of farmland was affected, with $85 million lost in damage.
Fishing communities were badly affected with the storm destroying boats and associated equipment.

209
Q

What were the primary environmental impacts of Typhoon Haiyan?

A

Environmental devastation and the loss of forests and trees, caused by widespread flooding and wind speeds of 195mph
Oil and sewage leaks into the local ecosystem
Lack of sanitation following Haiyan led to greater pollution

210
Q

What were the political impacts of Typhoon Haiyan?

A

President Benigno Aquino under pressure to distribute aid more swiftly.

211
Q

What were the short term responses to Typhoon Haiyan?

A

The Philippines declared a ‘State of National Calamity’ and asked for international help 1 day after Haiyan made landfall.

212
Q

What were the long term responses to Typhoon Haiyan?

A

Water tanks installed by NGOs.
Red Cross provided adequate settlements and jobs.
Government spent $624m.
At least 5% of the Philippines local authorities’ budgets is set aside as the Local Disaster Risk Reduction Management Fund .
Build back better schemes

213
Q

What was done in an attempt to mitigate against Typhoon Haiyan?

A

Military plane and helicopters deployed to areas expected to be worst affected.

214
Q

What was done to prepare for Typhoon Haiyan?

A

Cone of probability to show where storm might land.

215
Q

What is the name of the scale used to measure to magnitude of tropical storms?

A

The Saffir-Simpson Scale

216
Q

How does the Saffir-Simpson Scale categorise tropical storms?

A

It is based upon wind speed. Category 5 over 250km/h is the strongest.
It estimates how much damage a tropical storm might cause.

217
Q

What is a wildfire?

A

An unplanned, unwanted wild land fire that destroy forests, grassland and other areas of vegetation.

218
Q

What are the three types of wildfire?

A

Ground fire (slow smouldering ground level fire with no flame and little smoke)
Surface fire (leaf litter and low-lying vegetation burn)
Crown fire (fire moves rapidly through the canopy)

219
Q

What conditions favour intense wildfires?

A

Vegetation type (spacing of trees)
Fuel characteristics (fine, dry material catch fire and burn more easily)
Climate and recent weather
Fire behaviour

220
Q

What is pyrophytic vegetation?

A

Plants adapted to tolerate fire. Methods of survival include thick bark, tissue with a high moisture content and background storage structures.

221
Q

What are the potential benefits of wildfires?

A

They clear vegetation and aid new seed germination, stimulate the growth of certain plants and rid an area of insects and some parasites.
Some seed pods require heat to release seeds. They release flammable sap which fuels the fire.

222
Q

How are wildfires distributed?

A

A rural hazard.
Dry vegetation and lightning strikes, dry season.
Australia, California, Florida, Southern Europe (S France, Italy, Greece, Turkey)

223
Q

What are the main human causes of wildfires?

A

Cigarettes, campfires, barbecues, fireworks, sparks from machinery, arson.

224
Q

What are the main causes of natural wildfires?

A

Lighting strikes, volcanic eruptions.

225
Q

What are the possible social impacts of wildfires?

A

Fatality.
Injury.
Damage to powerlines, reservoirs (deprive electricity / clean water).
Health problems e.g. respiratory.

226
Q

What are the possible economic impacts of wildfires?

A

Destruction of business (jobs/income).
Increased insurance premiums.
Cost of firefighting.
Discourage tourism.

227
Q

What are the possible political impacts of wildfires?

A

Criticism towards governments over handling.
Governments adjust forest management practices.

228
Q

What are the possible environmental impacts of wildfires?

A

Habitats destroyed.
Changes to ecosystems.
Soils damaged, organic matter removed.
Air pollution.
Water sources contaminated with ash.
Release of carbon as forests are carbon sinks.

229
Q

How can the impacts of wildfires be reduced in the short-term?

A

Putting it out, diverting it, evacuating people, spraying water on roofs of houses.

230
Q

How can the impacts of wildfires be reduced in the long-term?

A

Prevention (education, provision offire beaters)
Preparedness (emergency plan, supplies, emergency shelters)
Adaptation (non-flammable building materials, fire breaks)

231
Q

What was the wildfire that occurred in Australia in 2009?

A

The Black Saturday Wildfires in Victoria, 7 February 2009.

232
Q

What was the population of Victoria in 2009?

A

5.44 million. Today it’s over 6.6 million.

233
Q

What environmental conditions added to the Black Saturday fires?

A

Ten-year drought.
Recent temperatures exceeding 40 degrees celsius.
Strong winds.

234
Q

What human factors added to the fires’ intensity?

A

Lack of management.
Large amounts of very oil-rich dry material to fuel the fire.
Several fires caused by faulty powerlines.

235
Q

What were the social impacts of the Black Saturday wildfires?

A

173 deaths.
400 people injured.
2,000 houses in 78 communities destroyed.
Looting of deserted properties.

236
Q

What were the economic impacts of the Black Saturday wildfires?

A

3,500 properties destroyed inc. 1,500 farm buildings. Agricultural losses.
Overall estimated cost AUS $4 billion.
AUS $1.2 billion insurance.
60 business destroyed.

237
Q

What were the environmental impacts of the Black Saturday wildfires?

A

4300 km2 burned inc. forest and national parks.
Millions of animals, birds and reptiles killed, inc. rare species such as the sooty owl and spotted tree frog (RSPCA).

238
Q

What does preparedness involve in hazard management?

A

Ensuring emergency services and people at risk are aware of how to react during an event.

239
Q

What does mitigation involve in hazard management?

A

Reducing the severity of the impacts.

240
Q

What does adaption involve in hazard management?

A

Anticipating the adverse effects of an event and taking appropriate action to prevent or minimise the damage they can cause.

241
Q

How were the Black Saturday wildfires prepared for?

A

Australian Bureau of Meteorology predicted how the fire would spread. Told residents to ‘Prepare, Stay and Defend or Leave Early’.

242
Q

How were the Black Saturday wildfires mitigated against?

A

Victorian Bushfire Reconstruction and Recovery Authority established 10 Feb 2009.
20,000 firefighters and volunteers helped to put the fires out and support victims.

243
Q

How does the State of Victoria aim to prevent future wildfires?

A

Energy Safe Victoria more proactive role in safety regulation.
Electricity Safety Management Scheme.

244
Q

How has the State of Victoria adapted to its vulnerability to wildfires?

A

Amendment to the Sale of Land Act 1962.
Improved building standards to cover schools, hospitals, commercial properties.

245
Q

What were the long-term responses to the Black Saturday wildfires?

A

AUS $400 million donated to help rebuild houses and community facilities.
Fire shelters, improved warning systems and evacuation strategy.

246
Q

What hazards make the Philippines a multi-hazardous environment?

A

Earthquakes
Volcanic eruptions
Tsunamis
Landslides
Typhoons
Floods
Droughts

247
Q

What makes the Philippines vulnerable to volcanic eruptions?

A

Near destructive boundary.
Philippine plate subducted under Eurasian plate.

248
Q

What makes the Philippines vulnerable to earthquakes?

A

Philippine and Eurasian plate can become locked together.
Their sudden release can cause an earthquake.

249
Q

What makes the Philippines vulnerable to landslides?

A

Tectonic activity in the area from earthquakes.
Heavy rainfall can cause cliff saturation if they fall in areas with steep topography.

250
Q

What makes the Philippines vulnerable to typhoons?

A

Philippines situated at latitudes between 5-20 degrees North of the equator.
Vulnerable to typhoons in the west pacific ocean.
Ocean surface temperature above 26.5’C.
Strong coriolis effect.
Tad winds move storms westwards towards the philippines.

251
Q

What makes the Philippines vulnerable to tsunamis?

A

Submarine earthquakes in any of the surrounding plate boundaries or fault lines can cause a tsunami local enough to devastate.

252
Q

What makes the Philippines vulnerable to droughts?

A

When the wet season has brought enough rain to last the dry season, or in particularly harsh dry seasons.

253
Q

What makes the Philippines vulnerable to flooding?

A

Coastal floods during the wet season caused by typhoon storm surges or rising ocean levels and river flooding from heavy rainfall, even in drought areas.

254
Q

How have hazards cost the Filippino government socioeconomically?

A

Hinder government attempts to reduce poverty and number of people and assets vulnerable to hazards.
The cost to the country has been 0.5% of national GDP.

255
Q

What made 2013 a bad year for the Philippines?

A

Subject to one severe earthquake, touched or crossed by seven typhoons and eight tropical storms.
Major volcanoes rumbling away with intermittent small-scale emissions of lava, steam and gas.

256
Q

How many earthquakes occurred between 2000 and 2013 in the Philippines?

A

17 between 2000 and 2013 with a magnitude of at least 5.6.

257
Q

How many active volcanoes are found in the Philippines?

A

23

258
Q

Which three volcanoes dominate the Philippines?

A

Mayon
Pinatubo
Taal

259
Q

What impact has Mount Pinatubo had on the Philippines?

A

Violent eruption 1991.
500,000 people within 40km.
Warnings and evacuations saved at least 5,000.
Decreased global temperatures for at least two years.
Final death toll was around 850.

260
Q

How many natural disasters has the Philippines experienced in the last two decades?

A

Over 300.

261
Q

Who is most at risk to natural disasters in the Philippines?

A

Residents in coastal areas are vulnerable to tsunamis and tropical storms to a further degree than inland residents.

262
Q

What has traditionally been the approach to disasters from the Philippines government?

A

Reactive responses, when a more proactive mitigative approach should be taken.
Widespread emphasis on top-down post-disaster relief and short-term preparedness.

263
Q

What community level programmes have reduced risk?

A

The Philippines National Red Cross (PNRC) in conjunction with foreign RC orgs has started programmes at community level. They encourage people to collaborate in protecting lives and resources.
They promote co-operation and partnership with governmental bodies, long-term sustainability, training, and land-use mapping.

Geography Paper 1 (3 decks)

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