Harreit Part 2 Flashcards
Play definition
Any enjoyable behaviour done for its own sake- no other obvious purpose. Many diff types like computer games, doll to bed, playing doctor, smashing blocks together, talking to themselves (linguistic play) earl on, parents important but by 2, peers become more interesting. From observation: under 2 group intrractions are brief and infrequent (looking or smiling)
Types of play and rough and tumble studies
Sensorimotor like banging objects, rough and tumble and pretend play. Rough and tumble seen in animals, benefits physical development. Pellegrini and smith 98: helps establish dom hierarchy in low risk way e.g. which child strongest. Doesn’t lead to aggression, leads to continued affiliation through further games. Pellegrini 2006: boys who play fights tend to be popular and have wider range of strategies for problem solving in social situations
Pretend play part one
What psychologists most interested in. Child makes non literal use of an object. First pretend by themselves then layer with increasing number of objects (decentration). Haight and miller 93: majority is social, observed them at home between 12-48m, 75% pretend play was social, first w parents then peers. Parents scaffold pretend play slade 87: level and complexity of children play increased when mother joined in or gave explicit instructions.
Pretend play- mother and child
Oconnell and bretherton 84: at 20m, mothers fostered physical and functional play but at 28m, more symbolic and pretend play (scaffolding changes). Howes and matheson 92: mother may give teddy bath then give teddy to child but by 3 child initiates pretend play more and use less realistic objects e.g. earlier drink out of tiny cup but later can use a block. Bias in research-mainly mothers
Importance of pretend play
Walton 90: need to understand uporingins bc adult world has pretend (plays, films, books) look at dolls. Tomasello 2005: when children pretend together they engage in cooperation in a shared fictional world w joint goals. Adult institutions like none are pretend so need origins. Dockett 98: 4yrs olds either did pretend play training for 3wks or no. Training increased freq and complexity of group pretence, sig improved TOM test (causal)
Imaginary friends in pretend play
Between 1/4 to 1/2 report having one, most common age between 3-8. Children not confused between real friends and imaginary. Majors 2007: most are human but some animals, some create imaginary world around them (paracosm), can help loneliness, make children feel good about social.
Friendship definition and how changes across age
Close association between 2+ that endured over time. Bigelow 80: 6-8 define as common activities and live close, 9-10 is shared values and rules, 11-12 self disclosure and shared interests. Hay payne: infants have preferences for some peers, spend more time. Gifford: begin stable friendship over preschool, frequent +interactions, cooperating and + affect. Hartup: although friends engage in conflict at similar rates to non, friends spresolve more quickly and amicably, more likely to interact with each other again in + way. Fonzi: friends or not did conflict tasks: friends made more proposals, more time negotiating, compromise, more stable friends showed more sensitivity
Social networks
Foten: need to look at social words not just pairs. Clark: sociograms which are concentric circles, first is 5friends, then 4 etc. outside is 0. Strength of friendship is more lines between marks. Boys and girls coded separately. Their groups largely separate. Or get sociometric status (how popular) ask which 3 like most which 3 least. Popular are rated most, neglected low on liked most and least (not thought of) Rejected high on likes least, low on liked most, controversial high on liked for some but high on least for others, also AcH category
SS studies
Classifying important as see what varies amongst those liked or not to help inclusion. Dodge 83: popular children wait and watch what peers are doing then talk about what they’re doing (group oriented statements), neglected wait and watch only, rejected make disruptive statements and interrupt. Use strategies of popular kids
Consequences of being rejected
Bagwell 98: id children w and wout reciprocal friendships age 10, then asked 13yrs later at 23. Peer rejection predicted poorer job aspirations, performance and extent ps engage in social activity, predict + self esteem. Don’t know if correlation or causation (other variables)
Why are some rejected
Often blames on disruptive child but may be discrimination, bc of perceived group membership. Intergroup bias leads to childs behaviour marked as antisocial. Mcglothlin and killen: 7 and 10 yr from white school or diverse shown ambiguous images which could be seen generous or transgression light e.g. child standing behind another who fell of swing. Children who went to diverse had no racial bias, equally likely to say child wrong but white child in white more likely to say perp wrong when black
Bullying
Aggressive behaviour w imbalance of power and repetition. Hard to study as child don’t want to discuss, boys esp. methods: teacher or parent report, self report, observe in school (expensive, miss cyber; focus groups to get trust but ethical issues as bully may not consent, peer nominations but ethical- need combo. 5% in uk estimated to bully others, 10% expereince but underreported. Physical, telling tales, exclusion or cyber
Effects of bullying
Hawker and boulton : meta anal, victim linked to depression and moderately to low self esteem. Baldry and farrington : early example of antisocial, more likely to be chronic offender x4. Linked to fam issues like insecure attached, physical discipline and maltreated
Autism and social - background symptoms
Dsm: impairments in social interaction, communication and repetitive behaviours. Peirce: 110 toddlers with asd, developmental delay or normal presented with 1m movie with geometric patterns on one side and children doing actions on the other , eye tracking to see how long looked at each. Dev delay split time, normal looked at actions, asd looked at pattern
Asd and social interaction
Charman 97: asd children less likely to engage in joining attention (2+ ppl share attention to object like show other an object) and less likely to point for others when toddlers
Klin 2002: asd kids pay less attention to others eyes and have trouble detecting when ppl making eye contact w them
Asd pretend play
Jarrold: asd don’t tend to use pretend play-may be why less tom so encouraging may be good for dev. Done by prompting child to pretend in structured way e.g. give props and ask to show how doll would wear a hat. If direct scaffolding, asd engage
Asd friendship
Howlin 2004: 56% of adult asd report having no particular friends
Baron cohen 2003: ask ind score lower on friendshi pquestionanire than controls- pleasure in social interact, friendship.
Links to discrimination- baron c say ppl less interested in social interaction but asd may experience more discrim from peers so social interaction may be more - for them
Asd theories of diffs - tom
BC says they don’t psss sally Anne, no tom but Hughes and leekam: not all asd fail, those who pass don’t have higher social functioning as rated by teachers. Baker 2009: have issues reasoning for non social issues too. Frith: have weak central coherence, performance better at embedded figures task.
Asd theories -social motivation account
Chevallier: diminished social interest, reduces inputs and learning ops so less expertise in social cog. Used sr for 10-16rs asd and normal, kazdin pleasure scale for social, physical and unrelated items, reflects lack of interest (anhedonia). Asd less social pleasure only. Alt hyps is due to increased anxiety, stigma, bullying. Asd have strengths in other areas, asd as heterogenoety. BC said tom makes us human- leads to dehumanisation
Diff between bio sex and gender
Sex is reproductive system, chromosomes, hormones, seen more obviously in animals. Gender is social roles and behaviours linked to each sex, self definition, may not align and categorical view not universal, also intersex
Cultural diffs in gender
Native Americans can have 2 spirit id of two diff genders. In uk, place big deal on gender from birth. Toys genders like doll house or car, clothes have messages. Ps shown baby at 6m, ambiguous and told boy or girl. Described as strong/active compared to delicate/nice, offered gendered toys .Slaby and frey 75: showed kids pics of b/g, by 2 when asked which one are you, do it correctly. Idea of gender continuity/constancy slaby and frey: develop by 3/4 say they’ll remain a girl.
Gender comes from Reinforcement and imitation- also norm enforcement
Langlois and downs 80: fathers responded more + to kids when playing w stereotypical toys, boys punished more harshly than girls for gender differences behaviour. Hamilton 2006: 200 kids books- f more nurturing, not seen outside home in occupations, compared to 80s/90s and found little diff
Trans children
From earlier- placing themselves in correct category seen as success but bias. Zucker 99: kids w gender dysphoria given gender constancy interview, said they were dev delayed in understanding gender. Olson 2012: asked trans kids exp&imp qs. If confused wouldn’t have consistent answers, if lying would have in line with sex on imp but expressed on exp. But found for both, showed think of themselves in expressed gender , consistent and same as cis answers
Detransitioning - social only not surgery
Durwood 2022: longit study of trans youth, 23/317 detransitioned. Had diff paths, some id diff over time as some learned about new non binary which fit better, didn’t regret transmission and felt +/ neutral over de trans
Social trans and wellbeing
Durwood 2017: looked at mh of those who transitioned, parents get media attention for allowing. Wallian 2007: those who haven’t transitioned show increased anxiety and dep, more than 50% have clinical internalisation. Olsen- trans youth project: asked kids, siblings and parents. Depression and self worth didn’t differ but non sig higher anxiety, parents thought higher anxiety - didn’t directly compare and may face worse when older p also parents who signed up already more supportive
Evidence of sexism today
Goldin 2014: females earn 70% of male counterparts, less likely to be chosen for uni positions when same cv, rated as worse teacher when same. Includes stereotypes- associating attributes of all those in a gender, prejudice- - attitude to gender groups and discriminations: ind treated unequally on gender basis
Stereotypes
Leinback 97: asked 4/5/7 if diff objects mostly for boys or girls. Aware of stereotypes and increased w age e.g. bears and blocks/butterflies and ribbons. Signorella and liben 84: primary school kids showed stereo/ counter images like m doctor, f nurse or swapped. Those who endorsed stereotypes remember more stereo images and misremember counter items e.g. saw f doctor but said man- can be self reinforcing
Gender prefs and potential
Yee and brown 94: at 2 say they prefer their own gender but at adulthood both have more + attitudes toward women as see as warm, nurturing. Ambivalent sexism as + evaluation exists but - in spec contexts like workplace. Liben 2001: asked kids to judge m and f jobs, say how high status they are and how much they want to do them. M were doctor, mechanic, banker, f were gymnast, teacher and neutral artist, writer. Both rated f as lower status but g said prefer to do them
Racism and xenophobia prevalent today
Eu having more far right politicians, trump rioters had racist signs and images. Ppl from wind rush boat- promised citizenship from Caribbean but deported and still no justice. 2021 news story only just dropped bias that black ppl lower iq threshold so less likely to get compensation from concussion
Developing bias
Race: ppl vary so we impose discrete categories but bio doesn’t make sense. Racism is prejudice, stereo and discrim based on perceived reading categories. Kinzler: w 10m offered toys by b and w woman- equally likely to accept. Shutts 2013: w 3yrs old presented photos of 2 strangers of diff gender- b would befriend and learn words from (competent) b and g for g. When differed on race- no diff so gender more salient. By 5/6 w show preference for own race but decreases at 10 and not in adult- bc ppl hide it
Implicit bias
IAT: rt task where compatible trial is when use same finger for white face and + word and other finger for black face and - word, incompatible one finger for + and b, other for - and w, differerence in rt evidence link w+ and b-. Children heard instead of saw words. Now at 6, 10 and adults all show similar levels of sig preference for won groups so adults hid it
Xenophobia
Prejudice against ps from other countries. Dehumanisation is seeing outgroup members as less human. Mcloughlin 2017: presented 5/6 w faces morphed w doll (ambiguous). Saw in picture of York or another place/ told far. 5 year olds no diff but 6 say faces look less human when from far away, at both ages say preferred ppl from York
Reducing bias
Designing research led interventions is hard as paluk 2016: many exist but few evaluated. Contact: bring into contact in equal status and collaborative way, children show less bias in homogenous schools. May not be possible in w places so need extended/vicarious contact through films, books, games. Cooperation and superodrinate goals- summer camp bias but worked together gone. Paluk 2011: us high schools, 5 intervention, 5 wait list control. Ind trained to understand effect of prejudice and how to intervene when others are. At 5m found peer trainers more likely to be non by friends and peers to confront prejudice, behaviour spread to these as stand up on gay rights petition but awareness didn’t spread. In follow up selected ppl already most influential to max effect
