Gulf

Question 1

Long term causes of Saddam’s rise to power (1950-68)

Answer 1

• Iraq ruled as ‘mandate’ by Britain
• fuelled nationalist anger
• brutal crushing of rebellion in 1920
• King Faisal allowed UK to profit from Iraq’s oil —> led to nationalist campaigns for his removal

• economically developed over 35 years

• vast majority of land owned by minority class
• Britain supported Israel
• UK agreed to split oil profits with Iraq
• people were looking for leader who would get rid of British influence

• 1958 - King Faisal II overthrown and Iraq becomes a republic

• 1968 - military coup; Ba’ath Party rules

Question 2

July 1968 Coup

Answer 2

July 1968 coup:
• ended President Arif’s government and put Al Bakr of the Baathist Party in charge
• 17th July - Arif persuaded to resign and leave Iraq
• Baathist regime established Revolutionary Control Council which had supreme authority of Iraq
• Al Nayif put in power reluctantly by Baathists
• 30th July - Saddam leads second coup giving Baathists total power of Iraq
• Saddam becomes VP, but does governing Al Bakr isn’t interested in

Question 3

1979 coup

Answer 3

• Al Bakr attempts to unite Iraq and Syria - would leave Saddam powerless —> Saddam forces Al Bakr to resign
• July 16 1979 - Saddam becomes president of Iraq
• week into rule, Saddam executed 22 Baathists accused of treason —> elimination of opponents meant he had total control

Question 4

Strong Power Base

Answer 4

• involved in coup of 1958
• major role in 1968 coup
• had control over key positions within Ba’ath Party
• e.g. head of party’s intelligence division in 1963 —> helped him gather info on opponents
• used nepotism
• e.g. put half brother in command of Mukhabarat —> sought out opponents
• e.g. relatives given key positions in military to prevent coup attempts

Question 5

Populist Agenda to secure Iraqi support

Answer 5

• 1972 - nationalised all oil companies —> able to improve quality of life —> increased popularity
• 1973 - Iraq joined OPEC states in reducing sales to West due to support of Israel
• pushed up prices by 400% —> oil income in 1980 = $26,500
• improved infrastructure
• produced generation of lawyers and businessmen —> support base
• literacy rates rose 28% in Saddam’s reign
• university and healthcare were free
• number of uni students doubled

Question 6

Control over all areas of government and society

Answer 6

• trade unions and schools came under state control
• Baathist influence was everywhere
• indoctrination made youth reject western influence and promote Arab unity
• made sure state control stretched over army —> reduced chance of coup

Question 7

Repressive regime

Answer 7

• Saddam hung 100 opponents every six weeks
• Ramadan, close associate of Saddam, ran People’s Army, counterweight of coup attempts

Question 8

Nature of Saddam’s Rule - Corruption

Answer 8

• two show elections in 1995 and 2002
• 1995 - received 99.9% of votes
• 2002 - received 100% of votes

Question 9

Nature of Saddam’s Rule - Terror

Answer 9

• used People’s Army and Mukhabarat to impose authority
• regime was responsible for 250,000 Iraqi deaths
• tortured opponents
• show trials - televised trials of opponents

Question 10

Nature of Saddam’s Rule - Religion

Answer 10

• portrayed himself as devout Muslim
• Blood Qu’ran 1997 - proved himself to Arab world
• embraced Islam publicly in 1999

Question 11

Nature of Saddam’s Rule - propaganda

Answer 11

• his portrait appeared everywhere
• personality cult pervaded Iraqi society - thousands of statues and portraits

Question 12

Nature of Saddam’s Rule - Halabja

Answer 12

• March 1988 - thousands killed in a chemical attack during Iran/Iraq war in town in northern Iraq
• both blamed each other
• USA originally blamed Iran then switched
• Saddam claimed not to have resources but sources believe he was supplied by US + Britain

Question 13

Why did Saddam attack the Kurds?

Answer 13

1) • Kurds had been demanding separate homeland since 1921
• Saddam wanted to take over Kurdish North denying them independence
• Kurds fought civil war with Iraq in 1960s, leaving 100,000 dead
• fighting began again in 1974 and Iraqi army began campaign to crush Kurdish uprising
• Saddam saw Kurds as destabilising presence to his territory

2) • Iraqi Kurdistan contained valuable oilfields
• comprised 20% of Iraq’s reserves
• Saddam didn’t want to lose revenue

3) • Kurds and Iran allied together in Iran/Iraq war
• Iraq sent 35,000 soldiers to crush uprising
• Kurds kept large part of Iraq
• Saddam wanted to use chemical weapons to end rebellion

Question 14

Action taken against the Kurds

Answer 14

1) • 1974-75 Saddam attacked Kurds, exiling leaders and executing hundreds
• Kurds lost autonomy but were helped by Iran to resist Saddam
2) • Iran/Iraq war - Iranian aid increased, Kurds won back most of Kurdish North
3) • Saddam retaliated in 1988 in Halabja, killing 5000 with chemical attack
4) • wanted to depopulate north and destroy hopes of independent Kurdistan
• Chemical Ali, Saddam’s cousin, in charge of ANFAL CAMPAIGN, killing 180,000 Kurds

Question 15

Repression of Shiites in Iraq

Answer 15

• Shiites lived in south and centre of Iraq
• wanted greater inclusion in government
• after Islamic revolution in Iran in 1979, Saddam grew suspicious of Shiites
• in 1970-81, he deported 200,000 to Iran
• Saddam carried out genocidal campaign against Marsh Arabs in 1991 to 1993

Question 16

Background to the Iranian Revolution of 1979

Answer 16

• Iran ruled by Shah
• independent but oil fields controlled by Britain but Iranians wanted control + half of profits
• 1951 - Mossadeq made PM
• he nationalised oil and Britain withdrew workforce
• Britain convinced west not to buy oil and put navy blockade on Iran’s ports

Question 17

Rise of Nationalism in Iran (long term cause of revolution)

Answer 17

• nationalist movement gathered strength criticising Britain’s control over Iran’s oil
• Shah collaborated with British - made him unpopular, seen as sell out
• Britain convinced US to overthrow Mossadeq in 1953 using ‘coup’
• Shah became more unpopular, hiring pro-west PM
• West oil companies took 40% profits —> increase nationalist anger
• Shah joined CENTO - West saw Shah as barrier against Soviet expansion into Middle East - Iranians didn’t see Soviet as a threat
• Shah began modernisation
• development gap was immense

Question 18

Growing opposition to Shah’s rule (long term cause of revolution)

Answer 18

1) Anger over Shah’s extravagance
• Mullahs criticised wealth, luxury and. Irruption of shah in mosques
• e.g. Shah spent $330m on anniversary of Persian monarchy
2) Shah’s relations with west
• Mullahs hated close relations with west and Israel - saw it as unequal relationship
• Mullahs encouraged street demonstrations and targeted banks, discouraged western influence
3) Brutality of Shah’s secret police
• used informants and police brutality to keep control
• SAVAK had 60,000 agents at its peak who would torture and murder at will
• reduced influence of Mullah’s by imprisonment or exile
• e.g. 1964 - exiled Ayotollah Khomeini

Question 19

Short term causes of Iranian Revolution, 1979

Answer 19

• Mullahs called on Shah to abdicate, inspiring street demonstrations
• led to deaths of 500+ in one day in September 1978
• Shah introduced military rule
• mass strikes in October and November - halt to industry and oil production
• army refused to fire on demonstrators - undermined Shah’s ability to control opposition
• Shah travelled to West in 1979
• Khomeini announces Islamic Revolution
• people voted for abolition of monarchy and institution of republic in referendum

Question 20

US hostage crisis

Answer 20

• ‘students’ stormed embassy in Nov 1979 taking hostage 50 US staff
• mullahs demanded USA returned Shah to Iran to face trial for ‘crimes against Iranian people’
• Carter refused to cave in —> hostages were released in January 1981

Question 21

Causes of Iran/Iraq war, 1980-88

Answer 21

• Khomeini declared Fatwah against Saddam
• Al-Sadr (leader of Shia political party in Iraq) believed there’d be Islamic uprising in Iraq —> Saddam executed Al-Sadr in April 1980

• evidence of attempted assassination on Baathists
• Saddam feared for his life
• both countries supported rebel groups in the other
• Saddam deported large numbers of Iraqis born in Iran

• strategic considerations - coastline, ports —> more space to export

• Iran was weak due to sanctioning from US hostage crisis, armed forces demoralised —> hoped for ‘whirlwind war’

Question 22

Stalemate of Iran/Iraq war, 1980-888

Answer 22

• Tactics of generals lacked imagination and didn’t have Iranian spirit
• 1980 onwards, war went well for Iraq (advanced forces with minimal resistance) but motivated reinforcements came
• Iran had larger population which balanced Iraq’s military
• Saddam made disastrous decisions like attacking 3 cities at once —> 60,000 troops attacked city and didn’t win
• both sides focused war of terror on cities —> neither would capitulate
• reached stalemate by 1982 when Iran pushed Iraq out and cut it off from its only port —> Iraqi tankers were escorted into ports
• Iran declared Baghdad was target, rejuvenating Iraqi soldiers
• USA’s satellites helped Iraq’s intelligence
• Iraq supported by SA, Kuwait and US - Iran supported by Syria, who blocked oil lines from Iraq —> lost income
• France sold weaponry to Iraq in fear of its oil supply
• Iraqi air force supplied with French jets, Iranian navy was superior
• Us joined in 1987 and destroyed Iran’s military —> made Iran sign ceasefire in July 1988

Question 23

Consequences of Iran/Iraq war, 1980-88

Answer 23

IRAQ:
• Iraq were in $80bn debt - wiped out 10 years of exports
• price of oil dropped but Saddam kept growing forces
• 93% of imports were weapons - Iraq’s services suffered
• life expectancy fell to 63 - Kuwait’s was 71
• 300,000 dead
IRAN:
• lost 700,000 people - including children and women
• cost $500bn and 8 years of oil revenues
• Saddam admitted no more territorial claims - victory for Iran
THE WEST:
• Syria was only state aggressive towards West
• Gulf states became reliant on USA in Kuwait invasion
• USA lost ally in Shah and gained enemy in Iran
• Israel faced a growing threat

Question 24

Cause of Saddam’s invasion of Kuwait, 1990

Answer 24

POWER:
• 1961, Iraq laid claim to Kuwait - 19th province on Iraq
• felt Kuwait owed him for attempted overthrowing of Khomeini
• wanted to restore reputation
WAR DEBT:
• was in $80bn debt - owed US $26bn
• struggled to repay $16bn to Kuwait for previous war
OIL:
• had to increase oil production - OPEC refused request to sell more oil
• accused Kuwait of slant drilling - demanded $10bn, they offered $9bn, he rejected
DISCONTENT AT HOME + MILITARY CRISIS:
• Saddam had disaffected army of 1 million eager for action

Question 25

Response to Saddam’s invasion of Kuwait, 1990

Answer 25

UN SANCTIONS:
• trade sanctions until forces withdrew
SADDAM’S RESPONSE:
• declared Kuwait as 19th province of Iraq
• declared he’d withdraw forces when Israel withdrew from Palestine —> most of Arab world condemned Iraq
OUTRAGE:
• people outraged about atrocities emerged. 100s of civilians gunned down
US REACTION:
• feared Iraq would seize oil fields
• 50% of world’s oil reserves are in SA
MULTI-NATIONAL FORCE:
• majority supported deadline by UN for Saddam
• 956,000 troops assembled in SA

Question 26

Course of the Kuwait war, 1990

Answer 26

1) 5 week air assault on targets - coalition forces had air superiority
2) Saddam hope world opinion would go against coalition. Fired missiles at Israel, US told not to retaliate.
3) ground attack began in Feb. Iraqi soldiers were no match.
4) set fire to oilfields as they retreated.
5) US forces continued into Iraq
6) 50,000 shias killed by Saddam’s forces
7) West declared Kurdish north as ‘no fly zone’
8) coalition stopped at Baghdad
9) many believe US used war to establish military presence in Gulf
10) ceasefire called on 28 Feb 1991

Question 27

Why did the Iraqis lose the gulf war, 1990?

Answer 27

• worse trained soldiers
• no air superiority
• Iraqi artillery could shoot down helicopters
• Israel didn’t retaliate

Question 28

Peace Terms imposed on Iraq by UN after gulf war, 1990

Answer 28

• Iraq had to recognise Kuwait’s sovereignty
• Iraq had to pay reparations
• Iraqi aircraft couldn’t enter ‘no fly zones’
• Iraq had to comply with weapons inspections by UN to uncover all WMDs
• trade sanctions until WMDs were destroyed

Question 29

Impact of sanctions on Iraq after gulf war, 1990

Answer 29

ECONOMIC:
• blockade prevented imports of machinery, fertilisers and medicines
• Iraq couldn’t sell oil
SOCIAL:
• blockade prevented imports of machinery, fertilisers and medicines
• Iraq not allowed to import chlorine to purify water
• 500,000 children died due to dysentery
• infrastructure rebuilt
• Saddam showed films of suffering to victimise Iraq
POLITICAL:
• didn’t increase opposition to Saddam
• special unit to protect Saddam
• used terror to control Kraq
• opinions began to shift against the policy of sanctions

Question 30

Consequences of the Gulf War, 1990

Answer 30

COST OF WAR :
• $61bn for USA
• 148 deaths in 100hrs of conflict - 28,000 in Vietnam
NO FLY ZONES:
• no fly zones in Kurdish north
• remained until 2003
MILITARY BASES:
• US left 15,000 troops in Kuwait in 1915
• war cemented USA as only super power
UN WEAPONS INSPECTORS:
• Saddam admitted to having chemical weapons but no nuclears
• Saddam was lying —> US wanted change in leader, couldn’t be trusted

Question 31

Impact on Saddam’s control in Iraq

Answer 31

• strengthened his grip, created a new army unit to protect himself
• purged army, executed 12 generals in July 1991
• 5 separate bodies tasked with uncovering threats to Saddam
• nepotism
• promoted victim image of Iraq, growing support of Arab states

Question 32

UN weapons inspectors and renewed bombing 1997-2000

Answer 32

• most of Iraqi infrastructure rebuilt in 1990s
• 1997 - UN demanded access to Saddam’s palace and he denied —> increased suspicion
• western planes began bombing military bases to apply pressure on Saddam to release WMDs
• Arab countries began questioning legality of latest round of bombing —> began trading with Iraq
• 1999 - US accepted Iraqi oil was flourishing, US companies won contracts with Iraqi oilfields
• Clinton administration accepted all WMDs destroyed

Question 33

Iraq emerges from isolation

Answer 33

• Saddam tried to disrupt inspectors due to CIA suspicions
• refused access to HQs and was bombed
• this turned Arabs against USA
• US Secretary says starvation of 1/2 million people was worth it —> increased anger
• 1999 - unlimited oil exports from Iraq
• Saddam in good terms with neighbours
• 2000 - Bush administration
• talks of removing Saddam