Guiding Questions Deck 3

Question 1

Describe features common to qualitative research designs.

Answer 1

• Descriptive: Since numeric data alone are insufficient, social behaviors are described in detail and understood in the context of design and usage
• Social: Focused on social phenomena
• Systematic: Data collection is procedural and consistent
• Authentic: Data collection takes place in contextualized, naturalistic settings (i.e., not in a laboratory or controlled setting)

Question 2

Define observations, including the concepts of direct/indirect and naturalistic/structured.

Answer 2

• Observations- “Examination of an object, process, or other phenomenon for the purpose of collecting data about it or drawing conclusions” (APA)
• Observations can be categorized according to certain considerations:
• Are the observations direct or indirect (through transcripts, narratives, social media posts, etc.)?
• Are the observations being conducted in a naturalistic or structured setting (i.e., laboratory setting where variables can be controlled)?
• Is the observer unobtrusive or an active participant (i.e., immersed in the activity or social setting; commonly used as part of ethnographic research)?

Question 3

What is a participant observation and how is it different from other direct observations?

Answer 3

• Participant observation is a qualitative research method where the researcher immerses themselves in the environment of their subjects, actively engaging in their activities to gain a deeper understanding of their behaviors, culture, and interactions.
• This approach contrasts with other direct observations, where the researcher remains detached, simply observing without participating to minimize their influence on the subjects. While participant observation provides richer insights due to the researcher’s active involvement, it also presents challenges related to maintaining objectivity and ethical considerations.

Question 4

Define interviews and the concept of self-disclosure as it relates.

Answer 4

Interviews- Interviews are the most common qualitative design, and have several basic types:
- Structured: Possessing a scripted interview protocol that includes specific questions, prompts, directions, etc.
- Semi-structured: Includes an interview guide or interview protocol, but interviewers have latitude to follow line of questioning, reword if needed
- Unstructured: No explicit script or interviewer directions given

• To conduct a qualitative interview, the researcher will develop initial, general questions to establish rapport, and sometimes collect demographic information before the interview begins.
• Interviewers will sometimes practice with non-participants to develop and refine questions, set time expectations, and identify initial themes.
• Interviews allow the researcher to note: nonverbal cues (intonation, expressions, gestures) and to record the session (with permission) so the interviewer can focus on developing rapport and more easily share collected data when appropriate.
• Interviewers frequently engage in a process of self-disclosure, reviewing their collected data in light of their own background to prevent bias.

Question 5

Define focus groups and contrast against interviews.

Answer 5

• Unlike an individual interview, a focus group includes around 6-12 participants responding to questions with group discussion for about one hour. Focus Groups are led by a facilitator or moderator who engages in active listening, probing, redirecting and other techniques to encourage conversation between group members, while also moderating interactions and promoting participation, including differing viewpoints.
• Focus groups usually follow a general route of questioning instead of a specific interview protocol. This route of questioning has a smaller number of topics of interest and less structured questions. Cross-talk between focus group members is encouraged.
• Focus groups highlight narratives, not behaviors. Similarly, they use a phenomenological approach, focusing on participants’ perceptions of the constructs being studied.

Question 6

What is a qualitative tradition and how is it different from a qualitative data collection technique?

Answer 6

• In addition to specific data collection/analysis techniques, researchers have developed different qualitative research designs, sometimes called traditions.
• Qualitative traditions are more complex than simple data techniques. A tradition can utilize a variety of techniques, and has a specific purpose, participant or focus area, unit of analysis, time frame, etc. Similar to the relationship between experimental and nonexperimental designs, qualitative traditions sometimes overlap in purpose or process, and are not mutually exclusive.

Question 7

Describe Biographical Study

Answer 7

• Biographical Study- In-depth investigation of a single individual over a specific time.
• Common data collection techniques: Interviews, historical artifact analysis
• Defining characteristics: Usually a long chronological frame, collecting data from a year or more in the past; interview questions tend to be exploratory and give a wide range for the participant to lead the direction of the conversation over multiple interview sessions.
• Examples: Lynn Spradley and the importance of sign language to her social and epistemological development (Spradley & Spradley, 1978) and Tracy Kidder’s (1993) description of socialization in a nursing home

Question 8

DescribeCase Study

Answer 8

• The most frequently utilized qualitative tradition, and have been used extensively in SLP literature.Focuses on a specific “object” (person, topic, location, or event). Data is gathered from one or a small number of cases, and is usually more structured than a biographical study, with more scripted and researcher-directed questions.

Case studies are divided into three types:
- Intrinsic: gain knowledge about one object in a specific instance
- Instrumental: more general; inquire into a phenomenon or refine a theory
- Collective: gain understanding by combining multiple case studies

Defining characteristics: Case studies are similar to biographical studies, but are more structured and cover a longer time frame.

Consider the following four questions, which separate case studies from other types:
Have the object and interest area of the study been clearly identified?
Has the object of the study been bound in such a way that it can be studied separately?
Is the study conducted in a relatively short time frame (<1-2 years)?
Is it possible that something of value can be learned from this single case?

Question 9

Define ethnography

Answer 9

• investigates “complex and contextually sensitive aspects of social life and culture”. Ethnographic research uses interviews and observations to explore cultures and societies.
• Common data collection techniques: Direct observation, participant observation, interviewing, artifact analysis, and focus grouping
• Defining characteristics: Ethnography focuses on exploring cultures and societies, rather than individuals or specific phenomena. This design does not start with a phenomena of interest. Instead, the interests are developed during exploratory data collection and then honed as additional data is gathered.

Question 10

What is the primary focus of an ethnographic study?

Answer 10

• In terms of data analysis, ethnographic researchers will sometimes utilize lamination, a process of layering on levels of data by forming hypotheses at the first stages and then testing with later collection methods, similar to triangulation.
• So, for example, a researcher might identify an interest after their first interviews, and then conduct focus groups and participant (embedded) observations to further explore this area or test a phenomenon.

Question 11

Grounded theory

Answer 11

• one of the first qualitative research methods to be formalized back in the 1970s. This design is meant to be a more systematic qualitative tradition “grounded” in data to maximize researcher’s theoretical sensitivity, meaning, their focus on data and hypotheses testing. That said, ethnography still does not require a formal hypothesis or research question.
• Common data collection techniques: Ethnography uses typical qualitative data collection methods (observation, interview, focus groups, etc.). Data is then systematically coded to make comparisons across data sets.

Question 12

What are the three coding levels commonly used in grounded theory?

Answer 12

• Coding Themes: A hallmark of Grounded Theory is the systematic coding of data into themes, categories, and subcategories. This coding system is divided into four stages:
• Open Coding: Break all of the transcript data into themes (sometimes referred to as “codes”), typically by identifying common keywords in transcript sections
• Axial Coding: Identify relationships between themes/codes (causal, temporal, spatial), and group into Categories
• Selective/Core Coding: Use these relationships to identify a small number (usually one) overarching Core Category/Categories

Question 13

What is mixed-methods research in terms of quantitative and qualitative research?

Answer 13

• Contrasting qualitative and quantitative creates “a false dichotomy between research paradigms”
• Mixed-Method Research: Referred to as the “third path” or “third research paradigm,” MMR combines at least one quantitative and qualitative technique (strand) in the same study. For example, a MMR study might employ both qualitative interviews and quantitative surveys.
• Researchers may decide to use MMR techniques when designing the study (fixed) or elect to introduce a type when the need for mixed techniques is discovered later (emergent). They may collect quantitative and qualitative methods simultaneously or sequentially. Data from each method may be analyzed and reported together (convergent) or results from one type may be embedded into the other.