Final Deck 1

Question 1

major types of bias:

Answer 1

• confirmation bias
• response bias
• selection/sampling bias
• recall bias
• misinterpretation/confounding bias
• publication bias

Question 2

confirmation bias

Answer 2

• the tendency to gather or weight consideration towards evidence that CONFIRMS preexistingor preferred expectations, which dismisses or fails the find contradictory evidence.
• its easier for people to discount newer information than to look into new information.
• EXAMPLE: being more likely to consider positive reviews about an item vs the negative reviews.
• EXAMPLE: being more liekly to accept positive info about a preferred presidential candidate than negative.

Question 3

recall bias

Answer 3

• retrospective reporting error when people recall information.
• EXAMPLE: parents of children diagnosed with ASD may be more likely to recall events before their diagnosis if they are not ready to face the diagnosis.

Question 4

response bias

Answer 4

• when responses of the participants are influenced by variables other than the construct being measured.
• EXAMPLE: people responding to a survey inaccurately because their responses are influenced by other variables, such as the environmental or social pressure to respond a certain way.

Question 5

selection/sampling bias

Answer 5

• systematic and directional error involved in the choice of units/cases/participants from a larger group of study
• affects external validity
• EXAMPLE: sending a survey to only your classmates, friends, and family because it is not a diverse sample; these people are likely to think the same as you so it creates bias.

Question 6

confounding/misinterpretation bias

Answer 6

• incorrectly attributing an association between two variables instead of a third factor that is independently associated with both the independent variable and the dependent variable
• affects internal validity.
• EXAMPLE: a study that determines if there is a relationship between shoe size and height that does not account for age.

Question 7

publication bias

Answer 7

• tendency for study results that are published in journals or other outlets to more likely show positive or statistically significant findings
• EXAMPLE: journals only post studies that are statistically significant

Question 8

ad hoc ergo propter hoc

Answer 8

• Latin: after this, therefore because of this.
• fallacy assuming that something was the cause of something else.
• correlation does not equal causation.
• EXAMPLE: got in a wreck because it was raining; failed the class because of the teacher.

Question 9

scientific method

Answer 9

• a set of procedures, guidelines, assumptions, and attitudes required for the organized and systematic collection; interpretation and verification of data and the discovery of reproducible evidence.

1. question/observation
2. research
3. hypothesis
4. experiment
5. analysis
6. report

Question 10

Where does the literature review fall in the scientific method?

Answer 10

• the research phase.
• the literature must be reviewed to know what is out there already so that a hypothesis can be formed based on the gaps.

Question 11

What is the difference between theory vs. hypothesis?

Answer 11

• A hypothesis is more specific, a theory is more broad.
• hypothesis: predicting results specific to one study.
• theory: phenomenon based on multiple studies.
• theory and hypothesis feed into one another.

Question 12

Experimental vs. Non-experimental Design

Answer 12

• experimental has control over the independent variable
• non-experimental does not

Question 13

Experimental Design

Answer 13

• Manipulates the independent variable to see changes in the dependent variable.
• Has control and experimental groups.
• Has random sampling and assignment.
• Can be blind/double blind.

Question 14

Non-experimental Design

Answer 14

• Less variable control
• More descriptive/applied
• Correlation studies
• Types: surveys, polls, interviews, case studies.

Question 15

Quantitative vs Qualitative

Answer 15

• Quantitative uses numerical data, usually deductive
• Qualitative uses data collected in words and is used to make observations, analyze narratives, and make themes, usually inductive

Question 16

Quantitative pros and cons

Answer 16

• pros: standardization, reliability, easy to analyze statistically, larger samples collected quickly.
• cons: less ability to obtain characteristics.

Question 17

Qualitative pros and cons

Answer 17

• pros: greater depth and exploration
• cons: more time consuming, more intensive work

Question 18

translational research

Answer 18

• a bridge between basic research (doesn’t have a specific problem in mind) and applied research (research conducted to address a specific problem in society- testing a specific intervention or medication.)

Question 19

Ethics

Answer 19

• the principles of morally correct conduct accepted by a person or group considered appropriate to a specific field.
• EXAMPLE: in psychological research, proper ethics requires that participants be treated fairly and without harm, investigators report results and finding honestly.

Question 20

research ethics

Answer 20

• the values, principles, and standards that guide the conduct of individual researchers in several areas, including the design and implementation of studies and the reporting of findings.
• EXAMPLE: research in that stipulate the studies involving data collection from human participants must be evaluated by institutional review boards.

Question 21

code of ethics

Answer 21

• each organization has their own provisions and code of ethics to follow.
• the goal is to outline behaviors that take place in the field,
• it takes the four principles of ethics and translates them into specific behaviors that can be good or bad.

Question 22

Two principles from ASHAs Code of Ethics

Answer 22

1. “Individuals should honor their responsibility to hold paramount the welfare of persons they serve professionally or who are participants in research and scholarly activities, and thy shall treat animals involved in research in a humane manner.”
   -Summary: Prioritize the welfare of the participants of the study.
2. “Individuals shall honor their responsibility to achieve and maintain the highest level of professional competence and performance.”
   - Summary: Maintain professional competence.

Question 23

Tuskegee

Answer 23

• A study done that gave people (sharecroppers) syphilis and did not treat them, even after penicillin was shown to be effective.
• The study caused many people to get sick and die.
• It led to an enormous public outrage and caused Congress to pass the National Research Act (created the group of people who developed the Belmont Report).

Question 24

The Belmont Report

Answer 24

• The Belmont Report led to the eventual development of 4 ethical principles.
• (beneficence, nonmaleficence, autonomy (informed consent), and justice (fairness, equitable distribution of benefits and risks of the study).

Question 25

The Common Rule

Answer 25

• The standardization of participant protections.
• Came about in the 90s.
• Used for almost all federal departments in regards to research.

Question 26

Vulnerable Populations

Answer 26

Additional protections for research with:
- prisoners
- children
- pregnant women

Question 27

List/Describe 4 ethical principles

Answer 27

1. Beneficence: Doing good, being kind, improving well-being
2. Nonmaleficence: Avoid doing harm, focus on NOT reducing wellbeing
3. Autonomy: A person’s right to make his/her own decisions; competence; the autonomous rights of one person should not infringe on the rights of another (respect for persons informed consent)
4. Justice: Fair distribution of risks/benefits of study across the population

Question 28

Ethical Dilemma

Answer 28

when two or more of the ethical principles come in conflict

Question 29

Give an ethical dilemma example

Answer 29

• My school district is in a rural part of the state and has a difficult time recruiting and retaining ASHA certified SLPs. Therefore, by necessity, the district is hiring less qualified clinicians and support personnel and delegating supervisory responsibilities to me.
• beneficence and nonmalfecience are in conflict

Question 30

What is an IRB?

Answer 30

• Their scope is to protect the participants of the planned study.
• They review every aspect of research to make sure it complies with the requirements of the government and of the university

Question 31

How does the IRB work?

Answer 31

Ensures
-Risks are minimized
-Risks are reasonable compared to benefits
-Selection of participants is equitable
-Informed consent will be obtained
-Confidentiality is adequately maintained
-Allows for exemptions if participants cannot be identified
-Surveys, interview, questionnaires
-Studies of existing records
-Research on normal educational process
-Also allows for expedited review if minimal risk

Question 32

Describe a literature review and 3 reasons to conduct one

Answer 32

• A literature review goes through all of the previous work in an area of interest.
• A standalone literature review summarizes and updates the current research.

3 reasons to conduct one are
- understand previous literature and your place in it
- identify useful or flawed measures
- avoid “dead end” topics
- get ideas on reporting structure

Question 33

How is a literature review different from a systematic review vs. meta analysis?

Answer 33

• A literature review aims to create an overall summary regarding the literature and identify trends/gaps.
• Lit reviews are smaller and focus on a specific research question.
• A systematic review uses a more broad structure to summarize the overall research.
• A meta analysis is a type of study that uses more quantitative techniques that takes previous studies and re-analyzes the statistical work according to effect size.
• It does this to group consistent studies and make averages.

Question 34

EBSCO vs. Database vs. Journal.

Answer 34

• EBSCO is like a search engine/search service for articles (like google).
• A database is a curated collection of journals (MEDLINE, PsychInfo, CINHAL etc.)
• A journal is an individual thing that publishes studies (ex: New England Journal of Medicine)

Question 35

Define a predatory journal

Answer 35

• Predatory journals are publications that claim to be legitimate scholarly journals, but misrepresent their publishing practices.
• Some common forms of predatory publishing practices include falsely claiming to provide peer review, hiding information about Article Processing Charges (APCs), misrepresenting members of the journal’s editorial board, and other violations of copyright or scholarly ethics.

Question 36

List/describe 3 characteristics of a predatory journal

Answer 36

• False claims about peer review
• misrepresenting numbers/members of the editorial board
• violations of copyright

Question 37

List 3 factors that contributed to the development of predatory journals

Answer 37

• Proliferation of research (open access journals- ex: journals that do not require a subscription)
• Groups came out with very large open access journals on the internet that were totally free and began to misrepresent their publishing practices
• rising journal subscription costs to libraries
  Prices of journals and databases have gone up, so it’s harder for libraries to maintain the databases
• tenure pressure
• certain researcher-paid open access journals with lax or no peer review

The internet allows predatory journals to really take off*

Question 38

Predatory journals vs. online journals

Answer 38

• These are not the same thing
• Journals can be online and open access and still be legitimate

Question 39

Impact Factor

Answer 39

• A calculation of citations and published articles cited in Scopus (Elsevier).
• An impact factor is given to a journal, and it is a measure of the number of times people cite that.
• More citations leads to a higher impact factor/seems to be more reliable
• this was intended to combat predatory journals

Question 40

Research interest –> research topic –> research question

Answer 40

• Identify a research interest (ex: Alzheimer’s Disease) and search it in a database
• To get to a research topic, add specific details to make it more narrow (who, what, where, when, why)
• A research question is the most specific

-*library sources help you by providing research, and reading abstracts to help you get ideas of what variables to choose

Question 41

What does a research question specify?

Answer 41

• Who you are going to be evaluating
• What specific construct are you researching (operational definition)
• Where will you conduct the study
• When will you conduct the study and how long will it take?
• The minimum 2 variables

Question 42

What is the FINER criteria for a research question?

Answer 42

• Feasible (ample participants, time, $)
• Interesting
• Novel (confirms/refutes/extends previous findings, or finds something new)
• Ethical
• Relevant (research, clinical)

Question 43

How does operationalizing variables impact the statistical design?

Answer 43

When you operationalize the constructs, it lends itself to the design because
- defining the construct can tell you what type of measurements to use (interviews, assessments, surveys)
- the type of data you will need (ordinal, nominal etc)
- how you will compare changes in the construct (pre-test post-test, correlation etc.)

Question 44

Define Unit of Analysis

Answer 44

• the unit that you are collecting your data on → this is usually individual peoples (ex: parent perceptions of child progress in speech language services).
• The unit of analysis can also be a group (ex: school district report cards- the individual district is rated).
• For the research class for this project, the unit of analysis is individuals taking the survey.
• *it helps with design because when you know the construct, you can operationalize it.
• Ex: anxiety in students is the unit of analysis- operationalized by scores on an anxiety assessment

Question 45

Operational definition vs. variable

Answer 45

• Operational definitions need to define the observable traits that can be measured to gain information about a construct
• a variable is something that can change in and between participants (ex: level of anxiety)

Question 46

Conceptual vs. Operational Definitions

Answer 46

• Conceptual definitions explain the background, understanding, and theoretical framework of an idea
• An operational definition explains how the idea will be observed and measured in the study
• background vs measure

Question 47

constant vs variable

Answer 47

• A constant is a group that does not change throughout the experiment.
• A variable is something that can change or is manipulated to change.

Question 48

List 2 types of variables

Answer 48

Discreet, continuous

Question 49

Define discreet variable

Answer 49

Has a finite range/set categories (ex: Likert scale)
-discreet can be further broken down into dichotomous and polytomous variables
-dichotomous: having 2 categories
-polytomous: having 3 or more categories

Question 50

Define continuous variable

Answer 50

• Has an infinite range (ex: temperature-can be in between degrees)

Question 51

Contrast independent and dependent variable

Answer 51

• Independent variable is the thing you test or change
• Dependent variable is what happens as a result of the independent variable manipulation

Question 52

What is the key difference between mediator and moderator variables?

Answer 52

• A mediator variable affects the dependent variable
• a moderator is indirect.

Question 53

Define/give an example of a mediator variable

Answer 53

• A mediator variable has a direct line of relationship that affects the dependent variable.
• The independent variable causes the mediator and then causes the dependent.
• Ex: temperament. If you have a certain personality, you might be more likely to have a specific type of emotional regulation. And then your temperament directly affects emotional regulation
• Ex: study time affects your test score.

Question 54

Define/give an example of a moderator variable

Answer 54

• Can affect the relationship between the independent-mediator-dependent variable.
• There is no direct cause from the independent variable to the moderator (not part of the chain, but can affect the relationship).
• Ex: In a relationship between emotional reactivity and emotional dysfunction, studies have demonstrated that there is a relationship between the independent variable (reactivity) and dependent variable (dysfunction).
• Emotional coping mechanisms → there is no relationship between emotional reactivity and coping mechanisms.
• But, coping mechanisms will influence the relationship between activity and dysfunction (people who are taught coping mechanisms are likely to be less reactive). – The coping mechanisms are a MODERATOR- because they are not part of the chain

Question 55

List the 4 scales of measurement

Answer 55

Nominal, Ordinal, Interval, Ratio

Question 56

Nominal Scale- describe/give example

Answer 56

• Nominal Scale-most basic scale of measurement.
• They are arbitrary- the only thing about a nominal scale is two different points in the scale cannot have the same value
• property: identity
• mathematical operation: count
• descriptive stats: mode

Question 57

Ordinal Scale-describe/give example

Answer 57

• Follows the rule of magnitude (order). One value is higher than another.
• They have a magnitude relationship between the different values on the scale.
• The variables have a relationship of magnitude but it is not a set/equal amount between them.
• Example-Likert scale: usually a 5-7 point ordinal scale (agree/strongly agree/neutral-has no equal/set value between them)
• property: identity, magnitude
• mathematical operations: rank order
• descriptive stats: mean, median, mode

Question 58

Interval Scale-describe/give example

Answer 58

• has identity, magnitude (order) and equal intervals between the points. This is something like an IQ score (have an average of 100 and a SD of 15).

Question 59

What is the difference between interval and ordinal scales?

Answer 59

• An ordinal scale has an order, but there is no equal distance between the values (agree/strongly agree etc)
• An interval scale also has an order, and the intervals between values are equal and meaningful (ex: IQ scores)

Question 60

Ratio Scales-describe/give example

Answer 60

• Has a starting point at absolute zero
• ex: the number of times someone stutters (they have to start at 0 first)

Question 61

What is the difference between an interval and ratio scale?

Answer 61

The interval scale does not start at absolute zero, where the ratio scale does