Growing up in a family Flashcards
Parenting Styles
Discipline
* Discipline: the set of strategies parents use to teach their children
how to behave appropriately
- Effective if child stops engaging in inappropriate behaviour and engages
in appropriate behaviour instead
- Ideally leads to internalization
* Internalization: the process by which children learn and accept the reasons for desired
behaviour
- i.e., Child abides by parent’s rules/norms even when the parent isn’t present
Fostering Internalization
* Reasoning that focuses on the effects of a behaviour on someone
else is best strategy for promoting internalization
- E.g. “pulling someone’s hair is wrong because it hurts the other person’s
body”
- Teaches empathy
* Reasoning has to be combined with
psychological pressure to foster
internalization
Sweet Spot of Psychological Pressure
* Too little
Child disobeys and ignores message
* Too much
Child is obedient but only because they feel forced to do it
- Will only comply if there is a risk of being caught
* Just right
Slightly raised voice and disapproving look is often enough
4 parenting styles
- 2 dimensions of parenting:
- Discipline/control: Extent to which parents monitor and manage their
children’s behaviour through rules and consequences - Sensitivity/ support/warmth: Extent to which parents mirror their
children and are responsive to them
Authoritative Parents
* High in sensitivity/warmth and discipline
* Attentive and responsive to child’s needs and concerns and respect
the child’s perspective
* Set clear standards and limits for their children and are firm and
consistent about enforcement
- But also allow autonomy within those limits
Effect of Authoritative Parenting on Kids:
* Good self-confidence
* Socially skilled
- Tend to have many friends and are well-liked
* Behave in accordance with adults’ expectations
* Do well academically
Authoritarian Parents
* High in discipline, but low in sensitivity
* Cold and unresponsive to child’s needs
* Expect child to comply with parent’s desires without question
* Exercise power by using threats, punishments, psychological control
Effect of Authoritarian Parenting on Kids
* Creates hostility in children and a refusal to internalize parents’
message
* More likely to rebel against parent’s rules
* Lower in self-confidence and generally higher levels of mental health
problems
* Lower social competence
* More behavioural problems, like aggression and delinquency
Permissive Parenting
* High in sensitivity, but low in discipline
* Responsive to child’s needs and wishes but are overly lenient
* Do not require child to regulate themselves or act in appropriate
ways
Effect of Permissive Parenting on Kids
* Higher in impulsivity
* Low academic achievement
* More behavioural problems, like delinquency and aggression
Uninvolved Parenting
* Low in discipline and sensitivity
* Generally disengaged from parenting
* Sometimes rejecting and neglectful
* Focused on their own needs instead of children’s needs
Effects of Uninvolved Parenting on Kids
* Struggle with self-worth and mental health problems
* Insecure attachment
* Low in social competence
* Low academic achievement
* More behavioural problems
Summary so far…
- Internalization of appropriate behaviour is fostered by reasoning and
a sweet spot of psychological pressure - Sensitivity to a child’s needs x discipline creates 4 parenting styles:
authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, and uninvolved - Parenting style has an important impact on children’s psychological,
social and behavioural/academic outcomes - Authoritative parenting style is best for promoting internalization,
well-being and social competence
Effects of Gender and
Culture
Parenting of Moms vs. Dads
* Moms:
- Spend on average, even those that work, 1.5 hours more with their
children than dads
- More likely to provide physical care and emotional support to children
* Dads:
- More likely to play with children
* Parenting by moms and parenting by dads are equally important
and affect children in similar ways:
- Sensitivity from both is important for children’s mental health
Parenting Across Cultures
* Many similarities
-All parents teach about good and bad behaviour very often and are least
likely to use love withdrawal
* Also some differences
- Italian parents are most likely to yell or scold
- Kenyan parents are most likely to threaten or use punishment, but least
likely to take away privileges
Are there cultural differences in the effects
of parenting practices on children?
* Research comparing European American vs. Chinese parenting shows that:
- Chinese/Chinese American parents are more likely to use authoritarian
parenting style
- Authoritarian parenting has fewer negative consequences for
Chinese/Chinese American children
- Positive association between authoritative parenting and positive
outcomes in children for both European Americans and Chinese children but this association is weaker for Chinese children
- Suggests that authoritative parenting is best across cultures, but
authoritarian parenting is less harmful in cultures where it is the norm
Spanking: Is it really that bad?
- 60% of children worldwide experience regular physical punishment
- Rates are higher in countries where authoritarian parenting is the norm
- BUT, meta-analysis of studies across 50 years shows that the
more children are spanked, the: - Less they comply and the more aggressive they are
- More problematic relationship with parents
- More mental health problems they have
- Lower their self-esteem
- These negative outcomes are found across cultural groups
- Yes, research shows that spanking is bad
- United Nations: spanking is a form of violence against children that
violates human right to be protected from violence
Effect of Children on
Parenting
Kids Also Influence Parenting
* Parent-child interactions tend to be bidirectional
* Each influences and reinforces the other’s behaviour
* Can create both positive and negative cycles
Coercive cycle…see image slide 50 (important!)
The Role of Shared Genes
* Parents’ and children’s behaviour can also both be caused by the genes they share
Shared genes, parenting and child’s temperament/behaviour
Implications
* A correlation between parenting and
children’s behaviour/outcomes could be due to parenting practices, children’s behaviour
AND/OR shared genes
- Does not imply causation between parenting and children’s outcomes
* Parenting practices are not solely responsible for children’s outcomes
Importance of Longitudinal Research
* Only way of definitively showing bidirectional relationship between
children’s behaviour and parenting practices
Summary so far
- Internalization of appropriate behaviour is fostered by reasoning and a
sweet spot of psychological pressure - Warmth x control creates 4 parenting styles: authoritative, authoritarian,
permissive, and uninvolved - Parenting style has an important impact on children’s outcomes
- Authoritative parenting style is best for promoting internalization, wellbeing and social competence across cultures
- Parenting provided by moms vs. dads tends to be different, but a warm,
supportive relationship with both is important - Culture influences which parenting practices are normative and the effects
of parenting practices on children vary somewhat by culture - Parents and children mutually influence each other’s behaviour
Family Structure
First-Time Parents are Older
* Average age of first-time moms in Canada
is increasing:
- 1973: 24 years old
- 2016: 29 years old
* “Older” first-time parents (vs. younger
parents) tend to have:
- More education and higher income
- Fewer children
- Less likely to get divorced in first 10 years
- More authoritative parenting
Same-Sex Parents
* More same-sex couples are becoming parents in Canada:
* 2001: 8.6% of same-sex couples raising children
* 2016: 12% of same-sex couples raising children
* Children raised by same-sex parents are no different that children
raised by different-sex parents:
* Similar mental health, social competence, sexual orientation, and
academic achievement
* Shows that parenting style matters, not parents’ sexual orientation
Divorce
Divorced Parents
* 35% - 42% of marriages end in divorce
* Peak in divorce in 1987 at 50%
* Initially, a divorce negatively impacts children’s well-being
* Kids show more depression, lower self-esteem, more behavioural
problems, and do worse academically
Children’s Age and Divorce
* Does a child’s age affect their adjustment to divorce?
* Study: Followed families for 4 years to examine effect of timing of
divorce on children’s outcomes
* Divorce:
- No divorce
- Early divorce: parents divorced when child was in Grade 1-5
- Late divorce: parents divorced when child was in Grade 6-10
* Children’s outcomes:
- Internalizing symptoms: depression and anxiety
- Externalizing symptoms: aggression, disobedience, impulsivity
* Academic performance
Results:
* Younger kids whose parents divorced showed more internalizing
symptoms (vs. older kids and no divorce kids)
* Younger kids whose parents divorced showed more externalizing
symptoms (vs. older kids and no divorce kids)
* Older kids whose parents divorced had poorer academic
performance (vs. younger kids and no divorce kids)
* Age affects how children adjust to divorce
- Kids whose parents divorced when they were younger showed more
internalizing and externalizing symptoms
- Kids whose parents divorced when they were older showed poorer
academic performance
* Suggests which areas parents should target to help their kids
through a divorce
Negative Effects of Divorce Don’t Last
* But, negative effects of divorce on children tend to not last long
- Differences in well-being of adults whose parents divorced in childhood
vs. adults whose parents stayed married are very small
Not All Divorces are the Same
* Children have a harder time adjusting to divorce and do worse if:
* Multiple changes
- e.g. divorce + new home + new neighbourhood + new school + remarriage
* Ongoing conflict between parents/ stepparents
- Puts child in the middle and in the role of mediator
- Children do better if parents and stepparents are able to be civil and
communicate directly with each other
* Children have an easier time adjusting to divorce if parents show high
levels of sensitivity/warmth
Divorce Can be a Good Thing
* Divorce can be a good thing if parents were engaged in a lot of
conflict before getting divorced
* Kids’ psychological well-being improves after divorce if parents had a lot
of conflict
Siblings
- Quality of sibling relationship matters
- Negative sibling relationships predict:
- More depression
- More social withdrawal
- More problem behaviours
Predictors of Positive Sibling Relationship
1. Siblings treated equally by parents
* If favouring happens, the least favoured child’s well-being suffers
* Differential treatment less detrimental if the least favoured child:
- Views it as justified
- Is older sibling
- Growing up in a collectivistic culture
2. Parents get along with each other
* Modelling a positive relationship with family member
The Role of SES
- Low SES (vs. average SES) negatively affects children’s development:
- Lower academic achievement
- More behaviour problems
- More depression and anxiety
- Why?
- Material hardships
- Negative effect of low SES on parenting:
- Amount of time parents can spend with their child
- Creates stress which can lead to poor parental mental health, harsh
parenting, and marital conflict
The Costs of Wealth
* Adolescents growing up in high SES (vs. average SES) families show
elevated rates of:
- Increased drug and alcohol use
- More delinquent behaviour
- More depression and anxiety
* Why?
- Parents spending more time at work
- High pressure to achieve and excel
Implications
* Similarities in adjustment outcomes for low and high SES children
- Suggests more than one pathway to detrimental outcomes
* Middle SES is best in terms of child development?
Summary
- Older parents tend to have a more positive parenting style
- Children raised by same-sex parents are the same as children raised
by different-sex parents - The way a divorce impacts children depends on their age
- Most children don’t experience long-lasting negative outcomes from
divorce and if parents have lots of conflict, divorce can be a good
thing - Sibling relationships matter and siblings get along best if parents
treat them equally + parents get along themselves - Low and high SES are both risk factors for children’s adjustment
