groups 2: intergroup processes Flashcards
how does Nagel (1978) argue that humans are cooperative
we assume other humans are cooperative, sensitive and can be reminded of rules and norms
altruism depends on this generalised compassion
what do Tomaseelo & Vanish (2013) argue
cooperation is not a generalised compassion for all humans, rather a regulatory mechanism where we understand the need to regualte behaviour to benefit other people and ourselves
easy and natural for humasns
what does Nowak & Highfield’s (2011) review conclude
empirical evidence indicates that humans are an ultra-cooperative species
what are the origins of cooperation
gives groups a competitive advantage
survival enhancing mechanism
what arguments are there that humans are cooperative
role of evolution?
emotions as social commitment devices to maintain and repair cooperative relaitonships (Frank, 1988) ; capacity to engage with others and their needs (Keltner, 2009)
greater levels of cooperation among humans than any other primate species (Tomasello et al., 2005) - at least in the way we cooperate
Children as young as two years can cooperate with peers to achieve mutually beneficial outcomes (e.g Ulber et a..,2015)
Moral cooperation foundations are evident in the first year of life (Bloom, 2013)
When humans have to act first, their first impulse is to cooperate (Rand et al.,)
are competition and cooperation mutually exclusive
in a study where the kinds of games people play across different societies/ cultures competition and cooperation were found to be interrelated
competition involved in playing games seems to be grounded in the idea that we are cooperative - rules etc
what are the three levels of competitiveness
trait competitiveness (Characteristic of the person) perceived envrionmetnal competitiveness (characteristic of the perceived situaiton ) structural competitoin (characteristic of the actural situation)
what are the negative consequences of competiton
high levels of anxiety that interfere with performance
low productivity
lack of motivation if no chance of winning
extrinsic motivation
contingent self-esteem
poor relationships
aggression towards others to win
how does comeptition undermine intrinsic task motivation
80 undergrads competing or not competing with others in a puzzle task
Both men and women in the competitive condition reported the game as less fun
but there are moderating variables
high achievement motivation results in greater intrinsic motivation
low orientation to competiton results in lower intrinsic motivation
between group competitoin results in greater intrisnic motivaiotn
how can we define conflict
incompatability of goals/ activities
When two goals are incompatible, conflict can arise in otherwise cooperative groups
what are the key differences between conflict and competition
Competition for resources results in conflict
BUT conflict does not always arise from competition
what are the types of conflict
latent conflict: interdependence is present but not yet felt or expressed
manifested conflict: interdependence is present and felt or expressed
Interdependence in this context means my goals are contingent on your goals or the degree to which you can achieve your goals may interfere with your ability to achieve your goals.
what are the different levels of interaction
Inter-individual: between people
Inter-group: between groups
Inter-organisational: between organisations
Inter-national: between nations
Social dilemma: between individuals and a collective (norm)
what is a process mdoel
Integration of multiple definitions
Includes inner and outer reactions to incompatibility
Describes dynamic change over time
how does perceived threat of conflict interact with cooperation
when one party controlled a gate to access the faster route an equlibrium of cooperation was reached
when both parties held access to a gate to block a faster route the possibility of mutual threat worsened net gain and slowed decision making
what is a social dilemma
Social dilemma: Negative interdependence between individual and group goals
what is a public goods dilemma
Each individual is expected to contribute to a common ‘pot’ that is then shared amongst all of the individuals in that group
E.g honesty boxes
Invites ‘free-riding’
what is a commons-dilemma (hardin, 1968)
everyone can access a stockpile of common goods that regereates itself when accessed moderately but depletes when overrused
what is the prisoners dilemma
Two criminals are caught, the police want to find out if they committed a crime and are interviewing them separately.
Do you cooperate with the partner or defect
Produces a payoff matrix
The least amount in prison served on average requires the two to cooperate
In the prisoner’s dilemma the net gain for both parties is greatest when both parties cooperate
BUT
Often both parties defect, resulting in a suboptimal outcome for both.
Trust between partners is crucial
E.g
Preparation for armed conflicts between countries
Strike or strike-breaks
Pollution CO2 emissions
what is the evolutionary approach to evolution (Axelrod)
Best strategy achieves cooperation quickest, and gets both parties to reach the stable cooperative continuum
Had a computer tournament where participants could submit their code as to what they think the strategy should be between these two parties playing the prisoner’s dilemma
He would run the code in a simulation and record the results
Most successful strategy was tit-for-tat
what is the logic of tit-for-tat
based on reciprocity
copy opponents previous move
icnreases cooperation
but can lead to escalations
what factors reduce cooperation
threat, loss, anger, group action, large groups, within-group communication, little communication between groups, anonymity
what is realistic conflict theory (Sherif t al., 1954)
Intergroup Approach
Intergroup hostility arises from competition amongst groups for resources
Conflict is described by negative interdependence
studies
Reported substantial intergroup hostility
Aggressiveness and passive aggressiveness
Resolved by the introduction of superordinate goals
Accepted that the conditions producing the aggression and hostility are not ecologically valid thus limiting generalisability
what is the frustration aggression hypothesis
If there is frustration as a consequence of a goal being blocked there will be aggression
Little empirical support for this, does not seem to be necessary or sufficient to result in intergroup conflicts
Model of moderating variable (Berkowitz, 1989)
There is not a natural link from frustration to aggression but there is a more complicated moderating web of influences and factors
