groups 2: intergroup processes

Question 1

how does Nagel (1978) argue that humans are cooperative

Answer 1

we assume other humans are cooperative, sensitive and can be reminded of rules and norms

altruism depends on this generalised compassion

Question 2

what do Tomaseelo & Vanish (2013) argue

Answer 2

cooperation is not a generalised compassion for all humans, rather a regulatory mechanism where we understand the need to regualte behaviour to benefit other people and ourselves

easy and natural for humasns

Question 3

what does Nowak & Highfield’s (2011) review conclude

Answer 3

empirical evidence indicates that humans are an ultra-cooperative species

Question 4

what are the origins of cooperation

Answer 4

gives groups a competitive advantage

survival enhancing mechanism

Question 5

what arguments are there that humans are cooperative

Answer 5

role of evolution?

emotions as social commitment devices to maintain and repair cooperative relaitonships (Frank, 1988) ; capacity to engage with others and their needs (Keltner, 2009)

greater levels of cooperation among humans than any other primate species (Tomasello et al., 2005) - at least in the way we cooperate

Children as young as two years can cooperate with peers to achieve mutually beneficial outcomes (e.g Ulber et a..,2015)

Moral cooperation foundations are evident in the first year of life (Bloom, 2013)

When humans have to act first, their first impulse is to cooperate (Rand et al.,)

Question 6

are competition and cooperation mutually exclusive

Answer 6

in a study where the kinds of games people play across different societies/ cultures competition and cooperation were found to be interrelated
competition involved in playing games seems to be grounded in the idea that we are cooperative - rules etc

Question 7

what are the three levels of competitiveness

Answer 7

trait competitiveness (Characteristic of the person) 
perceived envrionmetnal competitiveness (characteristic of the perceived situaiton )
structural competitoin (characteristic of the actural situation)

Question 8

what are the negative consequences of competiton

Answer 8

high levels of anxiety that interfere with performance

low productivity

lack of motivation if no chance of winning

extrinsic motivation

contingent self-esteem

poor relationships

aggression towards others to win

Question 9

how does comeptition undermine intrinsic task motivation

Answer 9

80 undergrads competing or not competing with others in a puzzle task
Both men and women in the competitive condition reported the game as less fun
but there are moderating variables
high achievement motivation results in greater intrinsic motivation

low orientation to competiton results in lower intrinsic motivation

between group competitoin results in greater intrisnic motivaiotn

Question 10

how can we define conflict

Answer 10

incompatability of goals/ activities

When two goals are incompatible, conflict can arise in otherwise cooperative groups

Question 11

what are the key differences between conflict and competition

Answer 11

Competition for resources results in conflict

BUT conflict does not always arise from competition

Question 12

what are the types of conflict

Answer 12

latent conflict: interdependence is present but not yet felt or expressed
manifested conflict: interdependence is present and felt or expressed

Interdependence in this context means my goals are contingent on your goals or the degree to which you can achieve your goals may interfere with your ability to achieve your goals.

Question 13

what are the different levels of interaction

Answer 13

Inter-individual: between people
Inter-group: between groups
Inter-organisational: between organisations
Inter-national: between nations
Social dilemma: between individuals and a collective (norm)

Question 14

what is a process mdoel

Answer 14

Integration of multiple definitions
Includes inner and outer reactions to incompatibility
Describes dynamic change over time

Question 15

how does perceived threat of conflict interact with cooperation

Answer 15

when one party controlled a gate to access the faster route an equlibrium of cooperation was reached

when both parties held access to a gate to block a faster route the possibility of mutual threat worsened net gain and slowed decision making

Question 16

what is a social dilemma

Answer 16

Social dilemma: Negative interdependence between individual and group goals

Question 17

what is a public goods dilemma

Answer 17

Each individual is expected to contribute to a common ‘pot’ that is then shared amongst all of the individuals in that group
E.g honesty boxes
Invites ‘free-riding’

Question 18

what is a commons-dilemma (hardin, 1968)

Answer 18

everyone can access a stockpile of common goods that regereates itself when accessed moderately but depletes when overrused

Question 19

what is the prisoners dilemma

Answer 19

Two criminals are caught, the police want to find out if they committed a crime and are interviewing them separately.
Do you cooperate with the partner or defect
Produces a payoff matrix
The least amount in prison served on average requires the two to cooperate
In the prisoner’s dilemma the net gain for both parties is greatest when both parties cooperate
BUT
Often both parties defect, resulting in a suboptimal outcome for both.
Trust between partners is crucial
E.g
Preparation for armed conflicts between countries
Strike or strike-breaks
Pollution CO2 emissions

Question 20

what is the evolutionary approach to evolution (Axelrod)

Answer 20

Best strategy achieves cooperation quickest, and gets both parties to reach the stable cooperative continuum
Had a computer tournament where participants could submit their code as to what they think the strategy should be between these two parties playing the prisoner’s dilemma
He would run the code in a simulation and record the results
Most successful strategy was tit-for-tat

Question 21

what is the logic of tit-for-tat

Answer 21

based on reciprocity
copy opponents previous move
icnreases cooperation
but can lead to escalations

Question 22

what factors reduce cooperation

Answer 22

threat, loss, anger, group action, large groups, within-group communication, little communication between groups, anonymity

Question 23

what is realistic conflict theory (Sherif t al., 1954)

Answer 23

Intergroup Approach
Intergroup hostility arises from competition amongst groups for resources
Conflict is described by negative interdependence

studies
Reported substantial intergroup hostility
Aggressiveness and passive aggressiveness
Resolved by the introduction of superordinate goals
Accepted that the conditions producing the aggression and hostility are not ecologically valid thus limiting generalisability

Question 24

what is the frustration aggression hypothesis

Answer 24

If there is frustration as a consequence of a goal being blocked there will be aggression
Little empirical support for this, does not seem to be necessary or sufficient to result in intergroup conflicts
Model of moderating variable (Berkowitz, 1989)
There is not a natural link from frustration to aggression but there is a more complicated moderating web of influences and factors