Grammar review: Topic - Rules

Question 1

Present continuous

Answer 1

We use the present continuous to talk about particular events or activities that have begun but have not ended at the time of speaking. The event or activity is in progress at the present time, but not necessarily at the moment of speaking.

We use the present continuous to suggest that an event or activity is or may be temporary.

Question 2

Present simple

Answer 2

We use the present simple with verbs describing states or situations that are always true or continue indefinitely.

We use the present simple with states or situations (thoughts, feelings) that exist at the present moment.

We use the present simple to talk about habits or regular events or actions.

Question 3

Past simple

Answer 3

We use the past simple to refer to a completed action or event in the past or to talk about situations that existed over a period of time in the past, but not now. We can either say when something happened, using a time adverbial (e.g. a few minutes ago), or assume that the listener or reader already knows when it happened or can understand this from the context.

We use the past simple to talk about repeated past actions.

Question 4

Present perfect

Answer 4

We use the present perfect to talk about a past action, event or state, when there is some kind of connection between what happened in the past, and the present time.

Often we are interested in the way something that happened in the past affects or is relevant to the situation that exists now. However, the connection with the present may also be that the action happened recently with a consequence for the present, that it continues until the present time, or that a repeated event in the past may (or may not) happen again.

Question 5

Past continuous

Answer 5

We use the past continuous to talk about a situation (…I was looking at him…) that started before a particular point in the past (he turned away) and was still in progress at that point.

Question 6

Past perfect

Answer 6

We use the past perfect to talk about a past event that took place before another past event, or before or up to a particular time in the past.

Question 7

Present perfect continuous

Answer 7

We use the present perfect continuous to talk about an activity in progress in the past for a period until now, which is still in progress or has recently finished.

Question 8

Past perfect continuous

Answer 8

We use the past perfect continuous to talk about a situation or activity that was in progress over a period up to a particular past point in time.

Question 9

Will + infinitive

Answer 9

We use will when we state a decision made at the moment of speaking and when we say that we think something is likely to happen in the future.

We use will (or ‘ll) when we talk about willingness to do something in the future (e.g. in offers, invitations, requests, and orders) and will not (or won’t) when we talk about unwillingness to do something in the future (e.g. reluctance, refusal).

Question 10

Be going to + infinitive

Answer 10

We use be going to when we state a decision made some time before we report it. Going to is often preferred in informal spoken English (where it is often pronounced /gǝnǝ/) and will is preferred in more formal contexts.

Question 11

Present simple for the future

Answer 11

We use the present simple to talk about future events that are part of some official arrangement such as a timetable or programme. A time expression is usually used with the present simple for the future (..at 3.45) unless the time referred to is already clear from the context.

Question 12

Present continuous for the future

Answer 12

We use the present continuous to talk about future activities and events that are intended or have already been arranged. Usually a personal pronoun is used (We…) and a future time is mentioned (..next Saturday) or already understood.

Question 13

Future continuous

Answer 13

We use the future continuous to talk about an activity or event happening at particular time or over a particular period in the future. We usually mention the future time (After the operation…).

Question 14

Modals

Answer 14

The modal verbs are: will, would, can, could, may, might, shall, should, must. Modal verbs have meanings relating to ideas such as possibility, likelihood, prediction, necessity, permission and obligation. They do not have to-infinitive, -s, -ing or past participle forms. They are often followed by the bare infinitive of another verb (e.g. She might go) but can also be used on their own (e.g. Yes, I can). They cannot be followed directly by a to-infinitive, an -ing form, a past participle, or another modal verb. In questions they come before the subject (e.g. Could you help?) and before not in negatives (e.g. He won’t (= will not) help).

Question 15

Semi-modals

Answer 15

The semi-modals are: ought to, used to, need, dare, had better, have (got) to, be able to. These have meanings like modal verbs but not the same formal features: for example, some can be marked for tense (e.g. have had (got) to); some have non-modal uses (e.g. She needs a rest).

Question 16

Can, could and be able to

Answer 16

When we say that someone or something has or doesn’t have the ability to do something, we use can(‘t) (for the present) or could(n’t) (for the past).

We can use be able to instead of can or could to talk about ability. We prefer be able to when we talk about a specific achievement (particularly if it is difficult, requiring some effort) rather than a general ability. Where there is a choice, in speech we generally prefer can or could rather than be able to.

We use will be able to, not can, to say that something is possible in the future on condition that something is done first.

We use can for the present or the future and could for the past to report permission. We can also use be allowed to.

Question 17

Will, would and used to

Answer 17

We use will and will not (won’t) to talk about (un)willingness and also to make offers, requests, refusals, and to give instructions.

We can use would to make a prediction about an imaginary situation; that is, about something that may or may not happen.

We can use ‘Would you like…’ when we make an offer, but not ‘Will you like…’. In requests, too, we can say ‘I would like…’, but nor ‘I will like..’. We can use should (with I or we) instead of would in requests like this, but this is formal.

To talk about things that happened repeatedly in the past, but don’t happen now, we can use would or used to + infinitive. Used to is more common in informal English. We can use used to but not would to talk about permanent past states. Notice how we normally make questions and negatives with use to in spoken English: ‘Did your children use to sleep well when they were babies?”; ‘I didn’t use to like visiting the dentist when I was young.’ Many people avoid using used to in questions and negatives without do (‘Used you to…?”, ‘I usedn’t to…) and in question tags (…, usedn’t you?) because it sounds very formal and old-fashioned.

Question 18

May, might, can and could

Answer 18

In affirmative sentences (that is, sentences which are not questions or negatives) we use may, might, or could with a similar meaning to say that there is a possibility of something happening or being true. Can is not used in this way. We sometimes prefer could to show that we are giving an opinion about which we are unsure. We use may/might/could + have + past participle to say that it is possible that something happened in the past.

In negative sentences, including sentences with words like only, hardly, or never, we use may not or might not to say it is possible that something is not true, and can’t or couldn’t to say that it is not possible that something is true.

May (not ‘might”) is used in formal contexts to say that something is allowed. May not is used to say that things are not allowed (e.g. Calculators may not be used in the examination).

Question 19

Must and have (got) to

Answer 19

When we say that it is necessary to do something, we use must or have (got) to. Sometimes it doesn’t matter which we use, although have got to is less formal than either must or have to and is particularly common in spoken English. However, we use must when we want to indicate that the speaker decides that something is necessary and we use have (got) to to suggest that someone else or some outside circumstances or authority makes something necessary.

We normally use must, not have (got) to, when we conclude that something (has) happened or that something is true.

When we give a negative conclusion we rarely use must not or have (got) to. Instead, we use can’t (cannot) or couldn’t.

To say that something was necessary in the past we use had to, not must.

Question 20

Need(n’t), don’t have to and mustn’t

Answer 20

We use needn’t (or don’t need to) or don’t have to to say that something is not necessary and mustn’t to say that something is not allowed.

When we say that it was not necessary to do something in the past, and it wasn’t done, we use didn’t need to or didn’t have to. To show that we think something that was done was not in fact necessary we use need not (needn’t) have.

Question 21

Should, ought to and be supposed to

Answer 21

We can often use should or ought to with little difference in meaning when we talk about obligation (e.g. in giving advice, making recommendations, or talking about a responsibility, and the probability of something happening or being true.

(Be) supposed to can be used instead of should/ought to to express a less strong obligation than should. It is also used to report what many people think is true, but should/ought to are not used in this way.

Question 22

Passives

Answer 22

Passive verb forms have one of the tenses of the verb to be and a past participle. The choice between an active and passive sentence allows us to present the same information in two different orders.

Compare:
active * The storm damaged the roof. - This sentence is about the storm, and says what it did. The subject (The storm) is the ‘agent’ and the object (the roof) is the ‘done to’.
passive * The roof was damaged. * The roof was damaged by the storm. - These sentences are about the roof and say what happened to it (in the first sentence) and what did it (in the second). The subject (The roof) is the ‘done to’. If it is mentioned, the agent (the storm) goes in a prepositional phrase with by after the verb.

Verbs which take an object (transitive verbs) can have a passive form (…was destroyed). Verbs which do not take an object (intransitive verbs) do not have passive forms (The child vanished.., but not ‘The child was vanished…”).

However, many verbs can be used at different times with and without objects - that is, they can be both transitive and intransitive. Compare: ‘Are they meeting him at the airport?’ (transitive) and Is he being met at the airport?’ (passive); When shall we meet?’ (intransitive; no passive possible)

In spoken language we often use get + past participle (..didn’t get picked…) instead of a passive form (wasn’t picked…) to talk about actions or events that we see as negative. Note, however, that we can also use it to talk about positive actions and events (e.g. Great news - I got picked for the team again!). We don’t normally use get + past participle to describe states.

Question 23

Questions

Answer 23

If we use what, which, who or whose as the subject, we don’t use do in the question. However, notice that we can sometimes use do when what, which, who or whose is the subject if we want to add emphasis, or to contrast with what has been said or implied. Do is stressed in spoken English: “Come on, be honest - who did tell you?’ Don’t confuse whose with who’s (short for either who is or who has), which are pronounced the same.

In these questions the wh-word is the object. We prefer which when we are asking about an identified group or range of things or people, and we use what when the possible range of reference is open. Sometimes, however, we can use either which or what with little difference in meaning (e.g. What/Which towns do we go through on the way?).

We can use negative yes/no or wh-questions to make a suggestion, to persuade someone, to criticize, or to show that we are surprised, etc. We make a negative yes/no or wh-question with an auxiliary verb (have, did, would, etc.) + -n’t. We can also ask a negative question using a negative statement and a positive ‘tag’ at the end (e.g. We don’t have to leave just yet, do we?). Negative questions can be used to sound polite when giving an opinion (e.g. Shouldn’t we offer her a lift?)

Question 24

Verb complementation: what follows verb

Answer 24

Some verbs are followed by an object (…the attacker…). These are called transitive verbs. Other verbs that are usually transitive include arrest, avoid, do, enjoy, find, force, get, grab, hit, like, pull, report, shock, take, touch, want, warn. Some verbs (e.g. arrive in ‘They arrived at the restaurant an hour late.’) are not usually followed by an object. These are called intransitive verbs. Other verbs that are usually intransitive include appear, come, fall, go, happen, matter, sleep, swim, wait. If a verb can’t be followed by an object, it can’t be made passive. Some verbs (e.g. give in ‘He gave me a biscuit.’) are commonly followed by two objects (me and a biscuit). Other verbs that are commonly followed by two objects include lend, offer, pay, sell, tell, throw.
A good dictionary will list the meanings of verbs and for each meaning tell you whether each meaning is intransitive, transitive and, if transitive, whether it is followed by one or by two objects.

Many verbs can be followed by another verb in the form of a to-infinitive (e.g. refuse to eat), -ing (e.g. avoid working), bare infinitive (e.g. help carry). Note that when to comes after a verb it can be part of a to-infinitive (= to + the base form of a verb; e.g. He wants to go, She hopes to win) or it can be a preposition followed by a noun phrase (e.g. He went to the theatre) or by an -ing form (e.g. He admitted to having a gun). An -ing form often behaves like an object (e.g. I regret leaving).

Here is a summary of common patterns together with examples of verbs that are used in this pattern. Note that many verbs can be used in several different patterns, and that some of the verbs given can be used just with an object, and may also be used intransitively (e.g. He failed to stop, He failed the test, He failed).

Question 25

Verb + to-infinitive

Answer 25

agree, aim, ask, decline, demand, fail, hesitate, hope, hurry, manage, offer, plan, prepare, refuse, want, wish

Question 26

Verb + -ing

Answer 26

admit, avoid, consider, delay, deny, detest, dread, envisage, feel like, finish, imagine, miss, recall, resent, risk, suggest

Question 27

Verb + to-infinitive or -ing with little difference in meaning

Answer 27

begin, cease, continue, start

Question 28

Verb + to-infinitive or -ing but with a difference in meaning

Answer 28

come, go on, mean, regret, remember, stop, try

Question 29

Verb + object + to-infinitive (= there must be an object)

Answer 29

allow, believe, cause, command, consider, enable, encourage, entitle, force, invite, order, persuade, show, teach, tell, warn

Question 30

Verb + (object) + to-infinitive (= there may be an object)

Answer 30

hate, help, like, love, need, prefer, want, wish

Question 31

Verb + object + -ing ( there must be an object)

Answer 31

catch, discover, feel, find, hear, leave, notice, observe, overhear, see, spot

Question 32

Verb + (object) + -ing (= there may be an object)

Answer 32

can’t stand, detest, dislike, dread, envisage, hate, imagine, like, love, mind (in questions and negatives), miss, recall, regret, remember, resent, risk, start, stop

Question 33

Verb + object + bare infinitive or -ing, but there is sometimes a difference in meaning

Answer 33

feel, hear, notice, observe, overhear, see, watch

Question 34

Reporting

Answer 34

When we report speech in a different context from the one in which it was originally produced, we sometimes need to make changes to the original words. Of course, differences between the original speech context and the one in which it is reported will influence whether changes are needed and what they should be. Here are some possible changes.

The tense we choose for a report is one that is appropriate at the time that we are reporting what was said or thought. This means that we sometimes use a different tense in the report from the one that was used in the original statement and change pronouns, references to time and place, and words such as this, that, and these.

Say and tell are the verbs most commonly used to report statements. We use an object after tell, but not after say. Notice, however, that we can use to + object after say, but not after tell, and that we can report what topic was talked about using tell + object + about.

Question 35

Countable and uncountable nouns

Answer 35

Nouns can be either countable or uncountable. Countable nouns are those which can have the word a/an before them or be used in the plural. Uncountable nouns are not used with a/an or in the plural. Some nouns in English are normally uncountable (like equipment), while in many other languages they are countable. For example: accommodation, advice, applause, assistance, baggage, camping, cash, chaos, chess, clothing, conduct, courage, cutlery, dancing, dirt, employment, equipment, evidence, fun, furniture, harm, health, homework, housing, housework, information, jewellery, leisure, litter, luck, luggage, machinery, money, mud, music, news, nonsense, parking, pay, permission, photography, poetry, pollution, produce, progress, publicity, research, rubbish, safety, scenery, shopping, sightseeing, sunshine, transport, underwear, violence, weather, work.

Sometimes a noun is used uncountably when we are talking about the whole substance or idea (e.g. business), but countably when we are talking about units or different kinds (e-g. businesses). There are many nouns like this, including beer, coffee, water; fruit, toothpaste, washing powder; cake, chicken, land, paint, space, stone; abuse, (dis)agreement, business, difficulty, fear, improvement, language, life, pain, protest, responsibility, success, thought, war. Here are some examples: Three coffees and a lemonade, please. - Brazil is a major producer of coffee.; Most toothpastes contain colourings. - Don’t forger to buy some toothpaste.; The chickens have escaped. - I don’t eat chicken.; I have a fear of spiders - He was trembling with fear.

Some nouns (such as paper) usually have different meanings when they are used countably and uncountably. Other nouns like this include accommodation, competition, glass, grammar, iron, jam, lace, property, room, sight, speech, time, tin, work. Here are some examples: I just don’t understand grammar. - I looked the answer up in a grammar (= a reference book); I got held up in a jam (= traffic jam). - This jam is really sweet.

(Note that ‘jams’ can also be used to mean types of jam); She made a wonderful speech at the wedding. - His speech has been affected by the illness.

Question 36

Compound nouns

Answer 36

A compound noun (such as pocket money) is an expression made up of more than one word, which functions as a noun in a sentence. For example, we can use a noun + noun combination to say what something is made of, where something is, when something happens, or what someone does: rice pudding, a glasshouse, the kitchen cupboard, hill fog, a night flight, a morning call, a language teacher, a window-cleaner We sometimes make compounds from nouns which consist of more than two nouns: a milk chocolate bar, an air-traffic controller, a dinner-party conversation.
Some compound nouns are usually written as one word (e.g. a tablecloth), some as separate words (e.g. waste paper), and others with a hyphen (e.g. a word-processor).

Some compound nouns can be written in more than one of these ways (e.g. a golf course or a golf-course). A good dictionary will tell you how a particular compound noun is usually written.

Some compound nouns consist of -ing + noun as in: chewing gum, a living room, drinking water, (a pack of) playing cards, a dressing gown, a turning-point, a working party. The -ing form usually says what purpose the following noun has. Other compound nouns consist of a noun + -ing: fly-fishing, film-making, sunbathing, risk-taking, life-saving. These compounds usually refer to actions or processes.

Question 37

The possessive form of nouns

Answer 37

To make the possessive form of nouns in writing - referring to people or groups of people (e.g. companies), other living things, places, times, etc. - we add ‘s (‘apostrophe s’) to singular nouns and to irregular plurals that don’t end in -s (e.g. Tom’s car; the college’s administrators; the women’s liberation movement) and add “ (an apostrophe) to regular plurals (e.g. the girls’ shoes; the companies’ difficulties). To make the possessive form of names ending in -s pronounced /z/ we can add either “ or ‘s (e.g. It’s Tom Jones’ (or Tom Jones’s) new sports car).

We can use the pattern noun + of + ‘ / possessive pronoun to talk about something that someone owns or about a relationship. Notice that when we are talking about relationships between people we can also use a noun without ‘s (e.g. an uncle of Mark’s (or an uncle of Mark).

The noun following a possessive form can be left out when we talk about someone’s house. We don’t use “shop’ when we talk about, for example, the newsagent’s/the chemist’s or the newsagent/the chemist (but not “the newsagent’s shop’/the chemist’s shop’) where the name of the shop includes the name of the person who works there (compare “the sweet shop’, but not “the sweet’s’).

Often we can use the possessive ‘s or …of + noun… with very little difference in meaning. However, in general, we are more likely to use the possessive form of a noun when the noun refers to a particular person or group of people; and when we are talking about time (e.g. next year’s holiday prices, rather than the holiday prices of next year).

We are more likely to use the …of + noun… form with an inanimate noun; when we are talking about a process, or a change over time (e.g. the establishment of the committee, rather than the committee’s establishment); and when the noun is a long noun phrase (e.g. She is the sister of someone I used to go to school with. rather than She is someone I used to go to school with’s sister.).

Question 38

Articles, determiners and quantifiers

Answer 38

Determiners are words such as this, her, and your which determine or specify what a noun or noun phrase refers to. They come before the noun and at the front of the noun phrase. Quantifiers are words such as some, much, and few which identify the quantity of something. Some words can be
both determiners and quantifiers (e.g. ‘I sent out invitations to a few friends’ [few = determiner) and
“A few of my friends came to the party’ (few = quantifier]) while some are determiners only (e.g.
“This is my friend Andrew’ (my = determiner]). Many determiners and quantifiers can be pronouns,
taking the place of a noun phrase (e.g. I’ve invited all my friends and most are coming (most = pronoun]). Articles (a/an and the) are determiners. They also specify what the noun refers to and come at the beginning of the noun phrase. However, they cannot be quantifiers or pronouns.

Question 39

The

Answer 39

We use the with singular, plural or uncountable nouns when we expect the listener or reader to be able to identify the thing or person we are referring to in the following noun.
It may be that the thing has already been mentioned; that it is clear from the situation which person or thing we mean; that it is in some other way understandable from the context which thing or person we mean (‘the beaches’ = the beaches we went to’); that the thing or person is identified in what is said after the noun (‘wearing the red coat’); or that there is only one of a particular thing (and also, for example, the Great Wall of China, the North Pole, the USA, the world).

Question 40

A/an

Answer 40

We use a/an with singular nouns when we don’t expect the listener or reader to be able to identify the thing or person we are referring to in the following noun. We often use a/an to introduce a new specific person or thing; or when the noun refers to a class of people or things generally - for example, when we describe someone or something or say what type of thing someone or something is.

Question 41

Zero article

Answer 41

We use zero article /-/ with uncountable and plural nouns when we talk generally about people or things rather than about specific people or things. We might talk about a whole class of things in a general way or about an indefinite number or amount.

Question 42

Some

Answer 42

Some and any are used with plural and uncountable nouns, usually when we are talking about limited, but indefinite or unknown, numbers or quantities of things.

We generally use some: in affirmative sentences (sentences which are not negatives or questions); in questions where we expect agreement or the answer “Yes’; in offers and requests in order to sound positive, expecting the answer “Yes’. If it is used in this way some is pronounced with its weak form /sǝm/.

We use some to talk about particular, but unspecified, people or things with the implication ‘some, but not all’. If it is used in this way some is pronounced with its strong form /sʌm/.

We use some (pronounced /sʌm/ when we mean quite a large amount of, or a large number of something. Notice that we can say ‘some years, months, weeks, etc.’ or just ‘years, months, weeks, etc.’ with a similar meaning.

Question 43

Any

Answer 43

We generally use any: in sentences with a negative meaning); in questions where we don’t necessarily expect agreement or the answer “Yes’; when we mean ‘all (of them), and it’s not important which’.

We commonly use any: in if clauses (If you see any cherries in the shop, can you buy them? note that ‘some’ is possible, but would seem to expect that you will see cherries); when any means ‘if there is/are’ (Any questions should be sent to the manager. = If there are questions…).

Question 44

Anyone, someone, etc.

Answer 44

The rules for the use of the following words are generally the same as those given in examples for some and any: the pronouns someone/anyone, somebody/anybody, something/anything, (notice that somebody = someone, and anybody = anyone), and the adverbs somewhere/anywhere. For example, some- words are generally used in affirmative sentences, and any- words are generally used in sentences with a negative meaning.

Question 45

Quantifiers with and without ‘of’: any (of), some (of), much (of), many (of), both (of), all (of) each (of), none (of), few (of), little (of)

Answer 45

We usually need to put of after quantifiers when there is a possessive form, pronoun or determiner before a noun. Notice, however, that in informal contexts after both and all we can leave out of before the, these, those (and this or that with all); my, your, her, his, etc.; and mine, yours, etc., but not before them, you, or us (or it with all). We don’t use of after a quantifier immediately before a noun.

Question 46

No, none (of), neither (of), either

Answer 46

We use the determiner no to mean ‘not a’ or ‘not any’ before a singular, uncountable, or plural noun. Before the, my, this, etc. we use the quantifier none (of) to mean ‘not any’. If it is clear from the context what we mean, we can use the pronoun none.

When we use none of with an uncountable noun the verb must be singular. However, when we use none of with a plural noun the verb can be either singular or plural (e.g. None of the parcels have/has arrived yet), although the singular form is more grammatical.

We use neither of instead of none of when we are talking about two people or things.

When we use either as a determiner, it is followed by a singular countable noun. If this is the subject of the sentence, it is followed by a singular verb. We use either of with plural nouns and pronouns. Note that either can also be used as an adverbial as in ‘We can either take the train or go by bus’ and I had no wish to go, and les didn’t want to go either’.

Question 47

Much (of), many (of), a lot of, lots (of)

Answer 47

Much and many are used to talk about quantities and amounts. Much is used with uncountable nouns and many with plural nouns. Before the, my, this, etc. we use much of/ many of. Much of can also be used with a singular countable noun to mean ‘a large part of’ (e.g. Much of the national park was destroyed in the fire.). We can use much and many without a noun if the meaning is clear (e.g. Can you get some sugar when you go shopping? There isn’t much left.). Much and many are often used after as, how, so, and too (e.g. I’d say there were twice as many women at the meeting as men.).

Much (of) and many (of) are used in negative sentences to emphasize that we are talking about small (or smaller than expected) quantities or amounts and in questions to ask about quantities or amounts (e.g. Have you got much homework to do?). In affirmative sentences we often use a lot of, lots of or plenty of rather than much (of) and many to talk about large amounts and quantities, particularly in conversation and informal writing. However, many of is common in affirmative sentences in both formal and informal contexts.

Question 48

All (of)

Answer 48

We use all or all of when we are talking about the total number of things or people in a group, or the total amount of something. In informal contexts we can leave out of.

In modern English we don’t use all without a noun to mean ‘everyone’ or ‘everything’. However, all can mean ‘everything’ when it is followed by a relative clause (e.g. I don’t agree with all that he said, (= everything that he said)). We can also use all without a noun to mean ‘the only thing’ (e.g. All she wants to do is help.).

Question 49

Each/every

Answer 49

We can use each and every with singular countable nouns, and each of with plural nouns, to mean all things or people in a group of two or more (each (of)) or three or more (every). We use a singular verb (..needs..) after each (of) and every. However, when each follows the noun or pronoun it refers to, the noun/ pronoun and verb are plural (e.g. Every student is tested twice a year. They are each given a hundred questions to do.).

Question 50

(A) few (of), less (of), (a) little (of)

Answer 50

We use (a) few (of) with plural countable nouns and (a) little (of) with uncountable nouns.

We use less (of) with uncountable nouns or in a general sense.

We often use a few and a little in a ‘positive’ way; for example, to suggest that a small amount or quantity is enough, or to suggest that it is more than we would expect. We often use few and little in a ‘negative’ way; for example, to suggest that the amount or quantity is not enough, or is surprisingly low. Compare ‘A few of her songs were popular and she was very well known’ (=’positive’) and ‘Few of her songs were very popular and eventually she gave up her musical career’ (=”negative”). This use of few and little is often rather formal.

Question 51

Relative clauses and other types of clause

Answer 51

Relative clauses have a similar function to adjectives in that they give more information about someone or something referred to in a main clause. Participle clauses (-ing and -ed clauses) can be used like relative clauses, but can also have an adverbial function, giving information about time, cause, etc.

Question 52

Relative clauses

Answer 52

Defining relative clauses (e.g. …that was driving past) are used to specify which person or thing we mean, or which type of person or thing we mean. Notice that we don’t put a comma between the noun and a defining relative clause.

Non-defining relative clauses (e.g. .., who is in her seventies) are used to add extra information about a noun, but this information is not necessary to explain which person or thing we mean. We don’t use them often in everyday speech, but we do use them frequently in written English. Notice that we often put a comma before and after a non-defining relative clause.

After a relative clause, we don’t repeat the subject with a pronoun; so, for example, we wouldn’t say ‘The house which is to the north of the road it is owned by the council’ However, this is sometimes found in informal speech; for example, “A friend of mine who is a solicitor - she helped me.’

Question 53

-ing clauses (= present participle clauses)

Answer 53

We can use an -ing clause to talk about something that takes place at the same time as or just before an action in the main clause. We often use an -ing clause in written narrative after quoted speech, when we want to say what someone was doing while they were talking.

Note that the understood subject of -ing and -ed clauses should be the same as the subject of the main clause. For example, in Glancing over his shoulder, he could see the dog chasing him, ‘he’ is the unstated subject of Glancing over his shoulder.

-ing clauses can be used to talk about reasons and results. This sentence has a similar meaning to ‘Because I knew exactly what I wanted, I didn’t spend much time shopping’.

Question 54

-ed clauses (= past participle clauses)

Answer 54

We can use an -ed clause to talk about something that happened before an action in the main clause. Often the event in the -ed clause causes the event in the main clause.

Question 55

Reflexive pronouns

Answer 55

When the subject and object of a sentence refer to the same person or thing, we use a reflexive pronoun as the object of a sentence rather than a personal pronoun. The singular forms of reflexive pronouns are myself, yourself, herself, himself, itself; the plural forms are ourselves, yourselves, themselves.

We can use reflexive pronouns for emphasis: for example, after an intransitive verb to emphasize the subject; after a transitive verb to emphasize that something is done without help; or after a noun to emphasize that noun.

Question 56

Each other / one another

Answer 56

Some verbs, such as avoid, can be used to describe actions in which two or more people or things do the same thing to the other(s). We use each other or one another with these. Other verbs like this include attract, complement, face, help, and repel. After the verbs embrace, fight, kiss, marry and meet we can use each other or one another, but this may be omitted when the subject is plural or has the form “…..and…’

With some verbs we have to use a preposition, often with, before each other/one another. Verbs like this include agree, coincide, collaborate, communicate, compete, contrast, co-operate, disagree, joke, mix, quarrel, talk. Note that we can also use compete against, talk to, and look at before each other/one another.

For emphasis we can separate each and other. This sentence is more emphatic than ‘The two children blamed each other..’.

Question 57

Substitution

Answer 57

We can use so + auxiliary verb + subject to say that a second person does the same things as the person already mentioned. The corresponding negative form uses neither, nor (‘Nor did I’), or not…either (‘I didn’t either’). We often use this to avoid repetition.

Question 58

Gradable and non-gradable adjectives

Answer 58

Most adjectives describe qualities that can be measured or graded, and so can be used in comparative and superlative forms and with words such as ‘very’ or ‘extremely’. These are referred to as gradable adjectives. Some adjectives are not gradable because they refer to qualities that are completely present or completely absent. These non-gradable adjectives are not usually used in comparative and superlative forms or with words such as ‘very’ or ‘extremely’. They can often, however, be used with words such as ‘absolutely’ or ‘completely’.

Question 59

Order of adjectives

Answer 59

When we use more than one adjective before a noun, there is often a preferred (although not fixed) order for these adjectives depending on what type of adjective they are: opinion + size/physical quality/shape/age + colour + participle adjectives + origin + material + type + purpose + NOUN. Here are some examples showing the most likely order: an old plastic container (= age + material + noun); a hard red ball (= quality + colour + noun); a frightening Korean mask (= opinion + origin + noun); a round biscuit tin (= shape + purpose (for holding biscuits) + noun); a small broken plate (= size + participle adjective + noun); a useful digital alarm clock (= opinion + type + purpose + noun).

To help you to learn this order, it can be useful to remember that gradable adjectives (describing opinion, size, quality, shape, and age) usually precede ungradable adjectives (participle adjective and adjectives describing origin, material, type and purpose).

Question 60

Easily confused adjectives

Answer 60

When we use the following adjectives to describe how a person feels about something or someone else, generally the -ed adjectives describe how the person feels (e.g. I was surprised..), and the -ing adjectives give an evaluation of the thing or other person (e.g. ..the film was quite frightening.): alarmed - alarming, amazed - amazing, bored - boring, excited - exciting, frightened - frightening, interested - interesting, pleased - pleasing, surprised - surprising, tired - tiring, worried - worrying.

Question 61

Adjectives and adverbs: use

Answer 61

We use an adverb, not an adjective, to say how something happened or was done or to modify adjectives.

Question 62

Adjectives and adverbs: comparative and superlative forms

Answer 62

We usually add the ending -er to one-syllable adjectives and adverbs to make their comparative forms and -est to make their superlative forms. With three or more syllables we usually add more/less and most/least. With two syllables we can usually use either.

Question 63

Quite

Answer 63

Quite has two meanings: to a particular degree, but not ‘very’ (= ‘fairly’); and to a large degree, or ‘very much’ (= ‘completely’). When quite is used with non-gradable adjectives it means ‘completely’.

Question 64

Adverbial clauses and conjunctions

Answer 64

An adverbial clause is a type of subordinate clause, linked to a main clause. An adverbial clause adds extra information to the main clause about such things as time and conditions. Most adverbial clauses begin with a conjunction that indicates their link with the main clause. Example conjunctions are after, before, and until (time conjunctions); and if and unless (conditional conjunctions).

Question 65

Tenses in adverbial and main clauses: general

Answer 65

The verb in the adverbial clause is usually the same tense as the verb in the main clause.
In example1 they are both present (present simple + present perfect), and in example2 they are both past (past simple + past simple).

Question 66

Time clauses: tenses

Answer 66

To talk about an action in the adverbial clause that is completed before another action described in the main clause, we can use either simple or perfect tenses, but not will or will have + -ed (the future perfect).

If the actions in the main clause and the adverbial clause take place at the same time, we use simple, not perfect tenses.

While is mainly used with continuous tenses and also with simple tenses.

Question 67

Real and unreal conditionals

Answer 67

Some conditional clauses beginning with if suggest that a situation is real - that is, the situation is or was true, or may have been or may become true (e.g. If anyone phones, tell them I’ll be back at
11.00; If you really want to learn Italian, you need to spend some time in Italy). Others suggest that a situation is unreal - that is, the situation is imaginary or untrue. (e.g. What would you do if you won the lottery?; If you had started out earlier, you wouldn’t have been so late).

Compare: If I go to Berlin, I’ll travel by train. (= real conditional) and If I went to Berlin, I’d travel by train. (= unreal conditional). In the first, the speaker is thinking of going to Berlin Git is a real future possibility), but in the second, the speaker is not thinking of doing so. The second might be giving someone advice.

Question 68

Real conditionals: tenses

Answer 68

In real conditionals we use a present tense to talk about the future, the present or unchanging relationships, and past tenses to talk about the past.

Question 69

Unreal conditionals: tenses

Answer 69

To talk about present or future situations in unreal conditionals, we use a past tense (either simple or continuous) in the if-clause and would + bare infinitive in the main clause. In unreal conditionals we don’t use the past simple or past perfect in the main clause. In unreal conditionals, we can also use could/might (have) instead of would (have) (e.g. If my grandfather was/ were still alive, he might have enjoyed looking after our garden; If I lived out of town, I could take up horse riding.). Notice that we sometimes use if…were instead of if…was.

When we talk about something that might have happened in the past, but didn’t, then we use if + past perfect and would have + past participle in the main clause. We can also use might/could have instead of would have in the main clause (e.g. They might have found a better hotel if they had driven a few more kilometres.).

In some unreal conditionals we use mixed tenses. That is, a past tense in the if-clause and would have + past participle in the main clause, or a past perfect in the if-clause and would + infinitive in the main clause. We can use these patterns to talk about possible consequences if situations were or had been different. We can also use might/could (have) in the main clause instead of would (have) (e.g. ..he could have passed the exam easily.; …Mary might still be alive today.).

In unreal conditional sentences we don’t normally use would in an if-clause.