Grammar review: Rule - Example(s) Flashcards
1
Q
We use the present continuous to talk about particular events or activities that have begun but have not ended at the time of speaking. The event or activity is in progress at the present time, but not necessarily at the moment of speaking.
A
‘Who are you phoning?’ ‘I’m trying to get through to Helen.’
2
Q
We use the present continuous to suggest that an event or activity is or may be temporary.
A
She’s doing voluntary work with young children until she starts her university course.
3
Q
We use the present simple with verbs describing states or situations that are always true or continue indefinitely.
A
Trees grow more quickly in summer than in winter.
4
Q
We use the present simple with states or situations (thoughts, feelings) that exist at the present moment.
A
This cake tastes wonderful. Where did you buy it?
5
Q
We use the present simple to talk about habits or regular events or actions.
A
Do you go to Turkey every year for your holidays?
6
Q
We use the past simple to refer to a completed action or event in the past or to talk about situations that existed over a period of time in the past, but not now. We can either say when something happened, using a time adverbial (e.g. a few minutes ago), or assume that the listener or reader already knows when it happened or can understand this from the context.
A
Kathy left a few minutes ago.
Jim continued the course even though it was proving very difficult.
7
Q
We use the past simple to talk about repeated past actions.
A
I saw my grandparents every week as a child.
8
Q
We use the present perfect to talk about a past action, event or state, when there is some kind of connection between what happened in the past, and the present time.
Often we are interested in the way something that happened in the past affects or is relevant to the situation that exists now. However, the connection with the present may also be that the action happened recently with a consequence for the present, that it continues until the present time, or that a repeated event in the past may (or may not) happen again.
A
We can’t have a meeting, because so few people have shown any interest.
My ceiling has fallen in and the kitchen is flooded. Come quickly!
We have belonged to the tennis club since we moved here.
Lee has represented his country on many occasions, and hopes to go on to compete in
the next Olympics.
9
Q
We use the past continuous to talk about a situation that started before a particular point in the past (he turned away) and was still in progress at that point.
A
When he realised I was looking at him, he turned away.
10
Q
We use the past perfect to talk about a past event that took place before another past event, or before or up to a particular time in the past.
A
When I went into the bathroom, I found that the bath had overflowed.
By 10 o’clock most people had gone home.
11
Q
We use the present perfect continuous to talk about an activity in progress in the past for a period until now, which is still in progress or has recently finished.
A
Since the operation two months ago, Joe has been learning to walk again. He can already
take one or two steps unaided.
Your eyes are red - have you been crying?
12
Q
We use the past perfect continuous to talk about a situation or activity that was in progress over a period up to a particular past point in time.
A
When I saw the vase in the shop window, I knew it was exactly what I had been looking for.
13
Q
We use will when we state a decision made at the moment of speaking and when we say that we think something is likely to happen in the future.
A
It’s late. I think I’ll go to bed now.
I think you’ll enjoy the film.
14
Q
We use will (or ‘ll) when we talk about willingness to do something in the future (e.g. in offers, invitations, requests, and orders) and will not (or won’t) when we talk about unwillingness to do something in the future (e.g. reluctance, refusal).
A
I’ll make one of my special desserts for dinner, if you like a I’ve asked her to join us this evening, but she won’t.
15
Q
We use be going to when we state a decision made some time before we report it. Going to is often preferred in informal spoken English (where it is often pronounced /gǝnǝ/) and will is preferred in more formal contexts.
A
‘Has anybody offered to look after the children?’ ‘Jo’s going to do it.”
16
Q
We use the present simple to talk about future events that are part of some official arrangement such as a timetable or programme. A time expression is usually used with the present simple for the future (..at 3.45) unless the time referred to is already clear from the context.
A
The next train to Newcastle leaves at 3.45. (station announcement)
17
Q
We use the present continuous to talk about future activities and events that are intended or have already been arranged. Usually a personal pronoun is used (We…) and a future time is mentioned (..next Saturday) or already understood.
A
We’re having a party next Saturday. Can you come?
18
Q
We use the future continuous to talk about an activity or event happening at particular time or over a particular period in the future. We usually mention the future time (After the operation…).
A
After the operation you won’t be doing any sport for a while.
19
Q
When we say that someone or something has or doesn’t have the ability to do something, we use can(‘t) (for the present) or could(n’t) (for the past).
A
A polyglot is someone who can speak several different languages.
Anita could speak three languages before she was six.
Martha couldn’t swim until she was ten.
20
Q
We can use be able to instead of can or could to talk about ability. We prefer be able to when we talk about a specific achievement (particularly if it is difficult, requiring some effort) rather than a general ability. Where there is a choice, in speech we generally prefer can or could rather than be able to.
A
‘Why isn’t Tim here yet?’ ‘It could be because his mother’s ill again.’
We use could, not can, to say there is a possibility of something happening or being true.
Despite yesterday’s snowfalls, we were able to drive home in less than an hour.
21
Q
We use will be able to, not can, to say that something is possible in the future on condition that something is done first.
A
After the trees have been cut back, we will be able to see more of the garden from the
sitting room.
22
Q
We use can for the present or the future and could for the past to report permission. We can also use be allowed to.
A
We can/are allowed to stay up late on Fridays and Saturdays because we don’t have to
go to school the next day.
23
Q
We use will and will not (won’t) to talk about (un)willingness and also to make offers, requests, refusals, and to give instructions.
A
Will/Won’t you have another biscuit? (Won’t you…?’ is a very polite and rather formal
offer).
‘John wants to borrow the car.” ‘He will not.’ (a firm refusal)
You will now put your pens down and pay attention. (a firm instruction)
24
Q
We can use would to make a prediction about an imaginary situation; that is, about something that may or may not happen.
A
You should apply for the job. You would have a good chance of getting it.
25
We can use 'Would you like...' when we make an offer, but not 'Will you like...'. In requests, too, we can say 'I would like...', but nor 'I will like..'. We can use should (with I or we) instead of would in requests like this, but this is formal.
Would you like me to get you some water?
26
To talk about things that happened repeatedly in the past, but don't happen now, we can use would or used to + infinitive. Used to is more common in informal English. We can use used to but not would to talk about permanent past states. Notice how we normally make questions and negatives with use to in spoken English: 'Did your children use to sleep well when they were babies?"; 'I didn't use to like visiting the dentist when I was young.' Many people avoid using used to in questions and negatives without do ('Used you to...?", 'I usedn't to...) and in question tags (..., usedn't you?) because it sounds very formal and old-fashioned.
We would/used to lend him money when he was unemployed.
I used to live in a flat in Paris.
27
In affirmative sentences (that is, sentences which are not questions or negatives) we use may, might, or could with a similar meaning to say that there is a possibility of something happening or being true. Can is not used in this way. We sometimes prefer could to show that we are giving an opinion about which we are unsure. We use may/might/could + have + past participle to say that it is possible that something happened in the past.
If the drought goes on much longer, there may/might/could be water rationing before the
end of the month.
Her parents may/might/could have influenced her decision to resign.
28
In negative sentences, including sentences with words like only, hardly, or never, we use may not or might not to say it is possible that something is not true, and can't or couldn't to say that it is not possible that something is true.
'While we're in Leeds shall we go and see Mark?' "But it's been nearly 20 years since we last saw him. He may not/might not remember us.'
I think I saw her go out, so she can't/couldn't be at home.
29
May (not 'might") is used in formal contexts to say that something is allowed. May not is used to say that things are not allowed (e.g. Calculators may not be used in the examination).
Coats may be left in the cloakroom.
30
When we say that it is necessary to do something, we use must or have (got) to. Sometimes it doesn't matter which we use, although have got to is less formal than either must or have to and is particularly common in spoken English. However, we use must when we want to indicate that the speaker decides that something is necessary and we use have (got) to to suggest that someone else or some outside circumstances or authority makes something necessary.
That's really good news. I must tell Steve straight away.
'Can we meet on Thursday morning?' 'Sorry, no. I have to go to the dentist at 11.00.'
31
We normally use must, not have (got) to, when we conclude that something (has) happened or that something is true.
She was bruised quite badly in the accident. It must hurt a lot.
32
When we give a negative conclusion we rarely use must not or have (got) to. Instead, we use can't (cannot) or couldn't.
'I'm seeing Dr Evans next week.' "That can't be right. He's on holiday then.'
33
To say that something was necessary in the past we use had to, not must.
When I went to school I had to learn Latin.
34
We use needn't (or don't need to) or don't have to to say that something is not necessary and mustn't to say that something is not allowed.
He didn't cook the meal himself so you needn't/don't have to eat it all. He won't be
offended.
You mustn't put anything on the shelves until the glue has set hard.
35
When we say that it was not necessary to do something in the past, and it wasn't done, we use didn't need to or didn't have to. To show that we think something that was done was not in fact necessary we use need not (needn't) have.
I didn't have to/didn't need to have an interview because I'd worked there before.
I needn't have cooked dinner. Just as it was ready, Chris and June phoned to say that they couldn't come to eat.
36
We can often use should or ought to with little difference in meaning when we talk about obligation (e.g. in giving advice, making recommendations, or talking about a responsibility, and the probability of something happening or being true.
You'll catch cold if you go out like that. I think you should/ought to take a hat.
I enjoyed her first novel, so the new one should/ought to be good.
37
(Be) supposed to can be used instead of should/ought to to express a less strong obligation than should. It is also used to report what many people think is true, but should/ought to are not used in this way.
The work was supposed to start/should have started/ought to have started last week.
Walking under a ladder is supposed to be unlucky.
38
Verbs which take an object (transitive verbs) can have a passive form (...was destroyed). Verbs which do not take an object (intransitive verbs) do not have passive forms (The child vanished.., but not 'The child was vanished...").
However, many verbs can be used at different times with and without objects - that is, they can be both transitive and intransitive. Compare: 'Are they meeting him at the airport?' (transitive) and Is he being met at the airport?' (passive); When shall we meet?' (intransitive; no passive possible)
The building survived the earthquake but then was destroyed by a fire.
39
In spoken language we often use get + past participle (..didn't get picked...) instead of a passive form (wasn't picked...) to talk about actions or events that we see as negative. Note, however, that we can also use it to talk about positive actions and events (e.g. Great news - I got picked for the team again!). We don't normally use get + past participle to describe states.
I'm really disappointed. I didn't get picked/wasn't picked for the team again.
The house was owned by an elderly couple before I bought it.
40
If we use what, which, who or whose as the subject, we don't use do in the question. However, notice that we can sometimes use do when what, which, who or whose is the subject if we want to add emphasis, or to contrast with what has been said or implied. Do is stressed in spoken English: "Come on, be honest - who did tell you?' Don't confuse whose with who's (short for either who is or who has), which are pronounced the same.
What happened to your eye?
41
In these questions the wh-word is the object. We prefer which when we are asking about an identified group or range of things or people, and we use what when the possible range of reference is open. Sometimes, however, we can use either which or what with little difference in meaning (e.g. What/Which towns do we go through on the way?).
I've got orange juice or apple juice. Which would you prefer?
He just turned away when I asked him. What do you think he meant?
42
We can use negative yes/no or wh-questions to make a suggestion, to persuade someone, to criticize, or to show that we are surprised, etc. We make a negative yes/no or wh-question with an auxiliary verb (have, did, would, etc.) + -n't. We can also ask a negative question using a negative statement and a positive 'tag' at the end (e.g. We don't have to leave just yet, do we?). Negative questions can be used to sound polite when giving an opinion (e.g. Shouldn't we offer her a lift?)
Haven't you finished your homework yet?
Why didn't she pay for the meal?
Who wouldn't like to own an expensive sports car?
43
Verb + to-infinitive
They won't agree to pay for the damage.
44
Verb + -ing
Stevens admitted stealing the wallet.
45
Verb + to-infinitive or -ing with little difference in meaning
Before we began eating/to eat my father thanked everyone for coming.
46
Verb + to-infinitive or -ing but with a difference in meaning
She came hurrying up the path to bring us the news.
How did you come to buy the car?
47
Verb + object + to-infinitive (= there must be an object)
My parents wouldn't allow me to go to the party.
48
Verb + (object) + to-infinitive (= there may be an object)
The police caught him driving without a licence.
49
Verb + (object) + -ing (= there may be an object)
I can't stand (him) wearing a suit.
50
Verb + object + bare infinitive or -ing, but there is sometimes a difference in meaning
She felt the mosquito bite/biting her.
51
When we report speech in a different context from the one in which it was originally produced, we sometimes need to make changes to the original words. Of course, differences between the original speech context and the one in which it is reported will influence whether changes are needed and what they should be. Here are some possible changes:
'Jim's arriving later today.' → She said that Jim was arriving later that day.
'I was sure I'd left it here.' → He said that he was sure he'd left it there/on the table.
'I grew these carrots myself' → He told me that he had grown those carrots himself.
52
Say and tell are the verbs most commonly used to report statements. We use an object after tell, but not after say. Notice, however, that we can use to + object after say, but not after tell, and that we can report what topic was talked about using tell + object + about.
Martha told me (that) she would be late for the meeting.
She said (that) she was feeling ill.
I said to John (that) he had to work harder.
She told me about her holiday in Finland.
53
Nouns can be either countable or uncountable. Countable nouns are those which can have the word a/an before them or be used in the plural. Uncountable nouns are not used with a/an or in the plural. Some nouns in English are normally uncountable (like equipment), while in many other languages they are countable.
The equipment was faulty.
54
Sometimes a noun is used uncountably when we are talking about the whole substance or idea (e.g. business), but countably when we are talking about units or different kinds (e-g. businesses).
The company is/are doing a lot of business in South America.
55
Some nouns (such as paper) usually have different meanings when they are used countably and uncountably.
The use of recycled paper is saving thousands of trees from being cut down each year.
56
A compound noun (such as pocket money) is an expression made up of more than one word, which functions as a noun in a sentence. For example, we can use a noun + noun combination to say what something is made of, where something is, when something happens, or what someone does: rice pudding, a glasshouse, the kitchen cupboard, hill fog, a night flight, a morning call, a language teacher, a window-cleaner We sometimes make compounds from nouns which consist of more than two nouns: a milk chocolate bar, an air-traffic controller, a dinner-party conversation.
Some compound nouns are usually written as one word (e.g. a tablecloth), some as separate words (e.g. waste paper), and others with a hyphen (e.g. a word-processor).
Some compound nouns can be written in more than one of these ways (e.g. a golf course or a golf-course). A good dictionary will tell you how a particular compound noun is usually written.
How much pocket money do you give to your children?
A new golf course/golf-course is being built outside the town.
57
Some compound nouns consist of -ing + noun as in: chewing gum, a living room, drinking water, (a pack of) playing cards, a dressing gown, a turning-point, a working party. The -ing form usually says what purpose the following noun has. Other compound nouns consist of a noun + -ing: fly-fishing, film-making, sunbathing, risk-taking, life-saving. These compounds usually refer to actions or processes.
She got some chewing gum stuck on her shoe.
58
To make the possessive form of nouns in writing - referring to people or groups of people (e.g. companies), other living things, places, times, etc. - we add 's ('apostrophe s') to singular nouns and to irregular plurals that don't end in -s (e.g. Tom's car; the college's administrators; the women's liberation movement) and add " (an apostrophe) to regular plurals (e.g. the girls' shoes; the companies' difficulties). To make the possessive form of names ending in -s pronounced /z/ we can add either " or 's (e.g. It's Tom Jones' (or Tom Jones's) new sports car).
The girls' shoes were covered in mud, so I asked them to take them off before they got into Tom's car.
59
We can use the pattern noun + of + ' / possessive pronoun to talk about something that someone owns or about a relationship. Notice that when we are talking about relationships between people we can also use a noun without 's (e.g. an uncle of Mark's (or an uncle of Mark).
That old car of Jo's is falling apart.
It belongs to a friend of his.
60
The noun following a possessive form can be left out when we talk about someone's house. We don't use "shop' when we talk about, for example, the newsagent's/the chemist's or the newsagent/the chemist (but not "the newsagent's shop'/the chemist's shop') where the name of the shop includes the name of the person who works there (compare "the sweet shop', but not "the sweet's').
We're going to Linda's (house) for the evening.
61
Often we can use the possessive 's or ...of + noun... with very little difference in meaning. However, in general, we are more likely to use the possessive form of a noun when the noun refers to a particular person or group of people; and when we are talking about time (e.g. next year's holiday prices, rather than the holiday prices of next year).
We are more likely to use the ...of + noun... form with an inanimate noun; when we are talking about a process, or a change over time (e.g. the establishment of the committee, rather than the committee's establishment); and when the noun is a long noun phrase (e.g. She is the sister of someone I used to go to school with. rather than She is someone I used to go to school with's sister.).
David's guitar playing has improved enormously.
The construction of the office block was opposed by protestors.
62
We use the with singular, plural or uncountable nouns when we expect the listener or reader to be able to identify the thing or person we are referring to in the following noun.
It may be that the thing has already been mentioned; that it is clear from the situation which person or thing we mean; that it is in some other way understandable from the context which thing or person we mean ('the beaches' = the beaches we went to'); that the thing or person is identified in what is said after the noun ('wearing the red coat'); or that there is only one of a particular thing (and also, for example, the Great Wall of China, the North Pole, the USA, the world).
Dorothy took a cake and some biscuits to the party, but only the biscuits were eaten.
Can you shut the door after you, please?
We had a good time on holiday. The beaches were all beautifully clean.
Give it to the man wearing the red coat.
Look at the moon. It's very bright tonight.
63
We use a/an with singular nouns when we don't expect the listener or reader to be able to identify the thing or person we are referring to in the following noun. We often use a/an to introduce a new specific person or thing; or when the noun refers to a class of people or things generally - for example, when we describe someone or something or say what type of thing someone or something is.
Helen's just bought a house on Wilson Street.
Sydney is a beautiful city.
64
We use zero article /-/ with uncountable and plural nouns when we talk generally about people or things rather than about specific people or things. We might talk about a whole class of things in a general way or about an indefinite number or amount.
/-/ Water has got into my camera and damaged it.
There are /-/ examples of the present continuous tense on page 32.
65
Some and any are used with plural and uncountable nouns, usually when we are talking about limited, but indefinite or unknown, numbers or quantities of things.
We generally use some: in affirmative sentences (sentences which are not negatives or questions); in questions where we expect agreement or the answer "Yes'; in offers and requests in order to sound positive, expecting the answer "Yes'. If it is used in this way some is pronounced with its weak form /sǝm/.
Peter gave me some advice.
Hasn't some information about the proposal been sent out already? I thought I read about it last week.
Shall I send you some details?
66
We use some to talk about particular, but unspecified, people or things with the implication 'some, but not all'. If it is used in this way some is pronounced with its strong form /sʌm/.
Some teachers never seem to get bored with being in the classroom.
67
We use some (pronounced /sʌm/ when we mean quite a large amount of, or a large number of something. Notice that we can say 'some years, months, weeks, etc.' or just 'years, months, weeks, etc.' with a similar meaning.
I haven't been here for some years.
68
We generally use any: in sentences with a negative meaning); in questions where we don't necessarily expect agreement or the answer "Yes'; when we mean 'all (of them), and it's not important which'.
We haven't got any butter left.
Do you have any better ideas?
Any student could have answered the question.
69
We commonly use any: in if clauses (If you see any cherries in the shop, can you buy them? note that 'some' is possible, but would seem to expect that you will see cherries); when any means 'if there is/are' (Any questions should be sent to the manager. = If there are questions...).
If you see any cherries in the shop, can you buy them?
Any questions should be sent to the manager.
70
The rules for the use of the following words are generally the same as those given in examples for some and any: the pronouns someone/anyone, somebody/anybody, something/anything, (notice that somebody = someone, and anybody = anyone), and the adverbs somewhere/anywhere. For example, some- words are generally used in affirmative sentences, and any- words are generally used in sentences with a negative meaning.
Joseph lives somewhere in Denmark.
I've never seen anybody that tall before.
71
We usually need to put of after quantifiers when there is a possessive form, pronoun or determiner before a noun. Notice, however, that in informal contexts after both and all we can leave out of before the, these, those (and this or that with all); my, your, her, his, etc.; and mine, yours, etc., but not before them, you, or us (or it with all). We don't use of after a quantifier immediately before a noun.
Many of Bob's closest friends are women.
Some of my jewellery is missing.
Have you seen any of these new light bulbs in the shops yet?
Are you going to eat all (of that cake, or can I finish it?
Both of us were exhausted after flying to Japan.
I polished each trophy with a soft cloth.
Is there much orange juice left?
72
We use the determiner no to mean 'not a' or 'not any' before a singular, uncountable, or plural noun. Before the, my, this, etc. we use the quantifier none (of) to mean 'not any'. If it is clear from the context what we mean, we can use the pronoun none.
There's no train until tomorrow.
No information was given about how the study was conducted.
She had no shoes on.
Have we got any more sugar? There's none in the kitchen.
'How many children have you got?" 'None."
73
When we use none of with an uncountable noun the verb must be singular. However, when we use none of with a plural noun the verb can be either singular or plural (e.g. None of the parcels have/has arrived yet), although the singular form is more grammatical.
None of the furniture has arrived yet.
74
We use neither of instead of none of when we are talking about two people or things.
Neither of his parents could drive.
75
When we use either as a determiner, it is followed by a singular countable noun. If this is the subject of the sentence, it is followed by a singular verb. We use either of with plural nouns and pronouns. Note that either can also be used as an adverbial as in 'We can either take the train or go by bus' and I had no wish to go, and les didn't want to go either'.
You could catch the 10.05 or the 10.32. Either train gets you there in good time.
Has either of them passed their driving test yet?
76
Much and many are used to talk about quantities and amounts. Much is used with uncountable nouns and many with plural nouns. Before the, my, this, etc. we use much of/ many of. Much of can also be used with a singular countable noun to mean 'a large part of' (e.g. Much of the national park was destroyed in the fire.). We can use much and many without a noun if the meaning is clear (e.g. Can you get some sugar when you go shopping? There isn't much left.). Much and many are often used after as, how, so, and too (e.g. I'd say there were twice as many women at the meeting as men.).
There isn't much traffic along the street where I live.
Will you be taking many suitcases on the trip?
77
Much (of) and many (of) are used in negative sentences to emphasize that we are talking about small (or smaller than expected) quantities or amounts and in questions to ask about quantities or amounts (e.g. Have you got much homework to do?). In affirmative sentences we often use a lot of, lots of or plenty of rather than much (of) and many to talk about large amounts and quantities, particularly in conversation and informal writing. However, many of is common in affirmative sentences in both formal and informal contexts.
She didn't show much interest in what I said.
John offered me a lot of money for the car.
Many of my relatives live around Wolverhampton.
78
We use all or all of when we are talking about the total number of things or people in a group, or the total amount of something. In informal contexts we can leave out of.
There is beating in all (of) the bedrooms in the house.
79
In modern English we don't use all without a noun to mean 'everyone' or 'everything'. However, all can mean 'everything' when it is followed by a relative clause (e.g. I don't agree with all that he said, (= everything that he said)). We can also use all without a noun to mean 'the only thing' (e.g. All she wants to do is help.).
Everyone was waiting to hear the results.
80
We can use each and every with singular countable nouns, and each of with plural nouns, to mean all things or people in a group of two or more (each (of)) or three or more (every). We use a singular verb (..needs..) after each (of) and every. However, when each follows the noun or pronoun it refers to, the noun/ pronoun and verb are plural (e.g. Every student is tested twice a year. They are each given a hundred questions to do.).
Every newspaper had the same front page story.
Following the flood, every building in the area needs major repair work.
81
We use (a) few (of) with plural countable nouns and (a) little (of) with uncountable nouns.
A few of the boys were very good footballers.’
There is little evidence to support his claim.
82
We use less (of) with uncountable nouns or in a general sense.
There's a lot less water in the lake than last year.
The holiday cost less than I thought it would.
83
We often use a few and a little in a 'positive' way; for example, to suggest that a small amount or quantity is enough, or to suggest that it is more than we would expect. We often use few and little in a 'negative' way; for example, to suggest that the amount or quantity is not enough, or is surprisingly low. Compare 'A few of her songs were popular and she was very well known' (='positive') and 'Few of her songs were very popular and eventually she gave up her musical career' (="negative"). This use of few and little is often rather formal.
I've got a few close friends that I meet regularly.
He has few close friends and often feels lonely.
84
Defining relative clauses (e.g. ...that was driving past) are used to specify which person or thing we mean, or which type of person or thing we mean. Notice that we don't put a comma between the noun and a defining relative clause.
Non-defining relative clauses (e.g. .., who is in her seventies) are used to add extra information about a noun, but this information is not necessary to explain which person or thing we mean. We don't use them often in everyday speech, but we do use them frequently in written English. Notice that we often put a comma before and after a non-defining relative clause.
Andrew stopped the police car that was driving past.
My mother, who is in her seventies, enjoys hill walking.
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After a relative clause, we don't repeat the subject with a pronoun; so, for example, we wouldn't say 'The house which is to the north of the road it is owned by the council' However, this is sometimes found in informal speech; for example, "A friend of mine who is a solicitor - she helped me.'
The house, which is to the north of the road, is owned by the council.
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We can use an -ing clause to talk about something that takes place at the same time as or just before an action in the main clause. We often use an -ing clause in written narrative after quoted speech, when we want to say what someone was doing while they were talking.
Note that the understood subject of -ing and -ed clauses should be the same as the subject of the main clause. For example, in *Glancing over his shoulder, he could see the dog chasing him*, 'he' is the unstated subject of *Glancing over his shoulder*.
Glancing over his shoulder, he could see the dog chasing him.
Pushing her way through the crowds, she just managed to get on the bus as it pulled away.
'Wait a minute,' said Frank, running through the door.
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-ing clauses can be used to talk about reasons and results. This sentence has a similar meaning to 'Because I knew exactly what I wanted, I didn't spend much time shopping'.
Knowing exactly what I wanted, I didn't spend much time shopping.
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We can use an -ed clause to talk about something that happened before an action in the main clause. Often the event in the -ed clause causes the event in the main clause.
Annoyed by the boys' behavior, she complained to the head teacher.
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When the subject and object of a sentence refer to the same person or thing, we use a reflexive pronoun as the object of a sentence rather than a personal pronoun. The singular forms of reflexive pronouns are myself, yourself, herself, himself, itself; the plural forms are ourselves, yourselves, themselves.
'What did you do to your hand?' 'I cut myself when I was chopping vegetables.'
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We can use reflexive pronouns for emphasis: for example, after an intransitive verb to emphasize the subject; after a transitive verb to emphasize that something is done without help; or after a noun to emphasize that noun.
We phoned the plumber and he came himself.
My sister drew the picture herself.
I was given this book by the author herself.
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Some verbs, such as avoid, can be used to describe actions in which two or more people or things do the same thing to the other(s). We use each other or one another with these. Other verbs like this include attract, complement, face, help, and repel. After the verbs embrace, fight, kiss, marry and meet we can use each other or one another, but this may be omitted when the subject is plural or has the form "…..and...'
They tried to avoid each other/one another at the party.
John and Carmen first met (each other/one another) when they were working in Spain.
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With some verbs we have to use a preposition, often with, before each other/one another. Verbs like this include agree, coincide, collaborate, communicate, compete, contrast, co-operate, disagree, joke, mix, quarrel, talk. Note that we can also use compete against, talk to, and look at before each other/one another.
The scheme allows students from many countries to communicate with each other/with one another.
We looked at each other/one another and started to laugh.
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For emphasis we can separate each and other. This sentence is more emphatic than 'The two children blamed each other..'.
The two children each blamed the other for breaking the window.
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We can use so + auxiliary verb + subject to say that a second person does the same things as the person already mentioned. The corresponding negative form uses neither, nor ('Nor did I'), or not...either ('I didn't either'). We often use this to avoid repetition.
I had a racing bike when I was young, and so did my brother.
'Amy loves ice cream.' 'So do I'
'I didn't think much of the restaurant.' 'Neither did I.'
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Most adjectives describe qualities that can be measured or graded, and so can be used in comparative and superlative forms and with words such as 'very' or 'extremely'. These are referred to as gradable adjectives. Some adjectives are not gradable because they refer to qualities that are completely present or completely absent. These non-gradable adjectives are not usually used in comparative and superlative forms or with words such as 'very' or 'extremely'. They can often, however, be used with words such as 'absolutely' or 'completely'.
They live in a very large house.
Our teacher gave us an absolutely impossible problem to solve.
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When we use more than one adjective before a noun, there is often a preferred (although not fixed) order for these adjectives depending on what type of adjective they are: opinion + size/physical quality/shape/age + colour + participle adjectives + origin + material + type + purpose + NOUN. Here are some examples showing the most likely order: an old plastic container (= age + material + noun); a hard red ball (= quality + colour + noun); a frightening Korean mask (= opinion + origin + noun); a round biscuit tin (= shape + purpose (for holding biscuits) + noun); a small broken plate (= size + participle adjective + noun); a useful digital alarm clock (= opinion + type + purpose + noun).
To help you to learn this order, it can be useful to remember that gradable adjectives (describing opinion, size, quality, shape, and age) usually precede ungradable adjectives (participle adjective and adjectives describing origin, material, type and purpose).
I drank some very good Brazilian coffee.
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When we use the following adjectives to describe how a person feels about something or someone else, generally the -ed adjectives describe how the person feels (e.g. I was surprised..), and the -ing adjectives give an evaluation of the thing or other person (e.g. ..the film was quite frightening.): alarmed - alarming, amazed - amazing, bored - boring, excited - exciting, frightened - frightening, interested - interesting, pleased - pleasing, surprised - surprising, tired - tiring, worried - worrying.
I was surprised to find that the film was quite frightening.
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We use an adverb, not an adjective, to say how something happened or was done or to modify adjectives.
The staff in the shop always speak politely to customers.
It was strangely quiet as we went into the room.
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We usually add the ending -er to one-syllable adjectives and adverbs to make their comparative forms and -est to make their superlative forms. With three or more syllables we usually add more/less and most/least. With two syllables we can usually use either.
The building was bigger than I'd expected.
It was the most ridiculous thing to say.
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Quite has two meanings: to a particular degree, but not 'very' (= 'fairly'); and to a large degree, or 'very much' (= 'completely'). When quite is used with non-gradable adjectives it means 'completely'.
I was quite satisfied with the result.
No, you're quite wrong!
The food here is quite superb.
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The verb in the adverbial clause is usually the same tense as the verb in the main clause.
In example1 they are both present (present simple + present perfect), and in example2 they are both past (past simple + past simple).
Because I'm overweight, my doctor has put me on a diet.
I felt unwell when I got up this morning.
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To talk about an action in the adverbial clause that is completed before another action described in the main clause, we can use either simple or perfect tenses, but not will or will have + -ed (the future perfect).
Have something to eat before you leave.
To refer to the future after a time conjunction (...before...) we use present tenses.
As soon as you see/have seen her, come and tell me.
She wrote to me after she spoke/had spoken to Jim.
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If the actions in the main clause and the adverbial clause take place at the same time, we use simple, not perfect tenses.
When I saw Kim, I asked her over for dinner.
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While is mainly used with continuous tenses and also with simple tenses.
While the children were swimming, their mother kept a watchful eye on them.
I read a book while I waited.
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In real conditionals we use a present tense to talk about the future, the present or unchanging relationships, and past tenses to talk about the past.
I'll give you a lift if it rains.
If you leave now, you'll be home in two hours.
If water freezes, it expands.
If I made the wrong decision then I apologize.
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To talk about present or future situations in unreal conditionals, we use a past tense (either simple or continuous) in the if-clause and would + bare infinitive in the main clause. In unreal conditionals we don't use the past simple or past perfect in the main clause. In unreal conditionals, we can also use could/might (have) instead of would (have) (e.g. If my grandfather was/ were still alive, he might have enjoyed looking after our garden; If I lived out of town, I could take up horse riding.). Notice that we sometimes use if...were instead of if...was.
If my grandfather was were still alive, he would be a hundred today.
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When we talk about something that might have happened in the past, but didn't, then we use if + past perfect and would have + past participle in the main clause. We can also use might/could have instead of would have in the main clause (e.g. They might have found a better hotel if they had driven a few more kilometres.).
If I had known how difficult the job was, I wouldn't have taken it.
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In some unreal conditionals we use mixed tenses. That is, a past tense in the if-clause and would have + past participle in the main clause, or a past perfect in the if-clause and would + infinitive in the main clause. We can use these patterns to talk about possible consequences if situations were or had been different. We can also use might/could (have) in the main clause instead of would (have) (e.g. ..he could have passed the exam easily.; ...Mary might still be alive today.).
If Bob wasn't so lazy, he would have passed the exam easily.
If the doctor had been called earlier, Mary would still be alive today.
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In unreal conditional sentences we don't normally use would in an if-clause.
If I had a more reliable car, I'd drive to Spain rather than fly.
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Other types of adverbial clause give information about place, contrast, cause or reason, purpose, and result:
Can you put it back where you found it, please?
My sister is blonde, whereas my brother has dark hair.
He wasn't allowed in because he was too young.
We got up early so that we could watch the sunrise.
He played so badly that he was easily beaten.
