Government Flashcards
Crown and parliament, ministers, domestic policies (including Royal Supremacy)
1
Q
In what way was Henry VIII’s attitude towards government similar to Henry VII?
A
- suspicion of possible rivals within nobility (potential for small Yorkist threat)
- Henry VIII continued use of JPs in local government rather than nobility
- encouraged talented advisors and administrators from outside nobility
2
Q
In what way was Henry VIII’s attitude towards government different to Henry VII?
A
- treatment of nobility
- Henry VII threatening
- Henry VIII disbanded Council Learned and cancelled 175 bonds and recognisances
- Privy Chamber became more important (part of king’s household but separate existence)
- Henry VIII never gave government affairs his personal attention
- delegated more to chief advisors
- Henry VIII encouraged factionalism at court by allowing ministers more power
- Henry VIII personalised the court to include more of what he liked
3
Q
Overall, what was Henry VIII’s attitude towards government compared to Henry VII?
A
- continued suspicion of nobility
- but still wanted their support
- not as harsh as Henry VII
- delegated much more power
- possibly due to his lack of experience
4
Q
How many times did Henry VIII call Parliament before 1529?
A
4 (1510, 1512, 1515, 1523)
5
Q
How many Parliaments were called during Wolsey’s period of dominance and why?
A
1 (1523), as he didn’t like it and was reluctant to use it
6
Q
What is the significance of Henry VIII’s first Parliament in 1510?
A
it abolished the Council Learned
7
Q
What is the significance of Henry VIII’s Parliament in 1512?
A
- it provided extraordinary revenue for invasions of France and Scotland
- passed Anticlerical Act restricting benefit of clergy
8
Q
What is the significance of Henry VIII’s Parliament in 1515?
A
Anticlerical Act not renewed despite anticlerical atmospheres in House of Commons
9
Q
What is the significance of Henry VIII’s Parliament in 1523?
A
- provided extraordinary revenue for invasion of France
- level of anticlericalism seemed reduced
10
Q
What was the primary reason for calling Parliament during the first half of Henry’s reign?
A
to secure revenue
11
Q
Why did the use of Parliament increase in the second half of Henry’s reign?
A
as Cromwell exploited its legislative possibilities more thoroughly than Wolsey
12
Q
Why did governance via councils break down during Henry’s reign?
A
due to conflict between Henry’s impulsive personality and the personalities of his ‘more conservative’ councillors
13
Q
How long did the conciliar approach to government last during Henry VIII’s reign?
A
from 1509 to 1514
14
Q
What were the factors that combined to result in the end of conciliar government?
A
- Henry became disenchanted with the reluctance of senior councillors to support war with France
- Henry became more attuned to governing and asserted his undoubted right to control decision making
- he surrounded himself with like minded young courtiers
- who reinforced his suspicions of the ‘old guard’
- Henry was impressed by the organisational skills of Wolsey
- Wolsey had contributed to effective management of French = royal gratitude
15
Q
What was the overall rise of Thomas Wolsey?
A
- scholarship to Oxford, became a bursar allowing him to develop talent
- gained patronage at court during Henry VII’s reign
- 1513 became Dean of York and Bishop of Tournai
- 1514 made Bishop of Lincoln and then Archbishop of York
- 1515 made Cardinal by Pope Leo X and became Lord Chancellor in Henry VIII’s government when William Warham resigned
- 1518 appointed Papal Legate by Pope Leo X
16
Q
What were Wolsey’s main concerns?
A
- management of Church
- foreign relations
- legal system
- domestic policy
- political decision making
17
Q
What were the domestic policies under Wolsey (1515 - 1529)?
A
- the Privy Chamber
- legal reforms
- Court of Chancery
- Court of Star Chamber
- financial reforms
- the ‘Tudor subsidy’
- the Eltham Ordinances
- economic policies
- problem of enclosure + national enquiry
- recoinage
- royal supremacy and the ‘King’s Great Matter’
18
Q
What was the only area of government before 1519 that Wolsey did not have immediate control of?
A
Privy Chamber
19
Q
Why is it significant that Wolsey did not have control of the Privy Council?
A
- its role had been extended in the early years of Henry VIII’s reign
- the king’s ‘minions’ became Gentlemen of the Privy Chamber
- young courtiers who enjoyed Henry’s personal favour
- had considerable influence
- the only area that Wolsey cannot influence himself
20
Q
What did Wolsey aim to do in order to secure his control of the Privy Chamber?
A
- neutralise the influence of the ‘minions’
21
Q
What did Wolsey do in 1519 to secure his influence over the Privy Chamber?
A
- removed the minions
- replaced them with his own supporters
- however, many were able to regain their positions
- the Privy Chamber was still somewhat outside of Wolsey’s immediate control
22
Q
Why did Wolsey have control over the legal system?
A
as he was Lord Chancellor
23
Q
What was the Court of Chancery?
A
- responsible for ensuring the equity of the legal system and that common law was not overly harsh
- dealt with problems relating to enclosure, contracts and land left in wills
24
Q
What did Wolsey try and use the Court of Chancery to do?
A
uphold ‘fair’ justice
- 1516 wanted to promote civil law rather than common law
(civil law based on natural evidence and justice)
(common law based on cases from the past)
25
What was the problem with the Court of Chancery?
- it became too popular and so was overcrowded
- justice became slow
26
What was the Court of Star Chamber?
- established under Henry VII by Act of Parliament in 1487 as an offshoot of the King's council
- but was barely used
- Wolsey's most distinctive legal contribution
- used to ensure fair justice, particularly against the nobility
- attack nobles who were abusing their power
- became centre of government and justice under Wolsey
27
Why did Wolsey extend the use of the Court of Star Chamber in 1516?
to increase cheap and fair justice
28
What did Wolsey encourage the use of through the Court of Star Chamber?
private lawsuits
29
What was Wolsey forced to do as a result of private lawsuits through the Court of Star Chamber being too popular?
had to set up a series of 'overflow tribunals'
30
What did Wolsey set up in 1519?
a permanent committee (ancestor of later court of requests) to deal with cases involving the poor
31
What did the permanent committee to deal with the poor give Wolsey?
a reputation of being a friend of the poor
32
When did Wolsey introduce the 'Tudor subsidy'?
1523
33
What change did Wolsey make to the way subsidies were collected?
set up a national committee to carry out direct and realistic assessments of the wealth of the taxpayer
34
What impact did the change in the way subsidies were collected have?
more realistic revenue expectations
35
What impact did the 'Tudor subsidy' have on revenue collected?
- able to raise extraordinary revenue for war in France
- but the amount was insufficient
36
How did Wolsey attempt to raise unparliamentary taxation?
through the Amicable Grant of 1525
37
What did the Amicable Grant lead to?
widespread resistance, almost amounting to rebellion
38
When were the Eltham Ordinances introduced?
1526
39
Why were the Eltham Ordinances introduced?
as Wolsey wanted to reform the finances of the Privy Council
40
What did the Eltham Ordinances achieve?
- reduction of royal household expenditure
- enabled Wolsey to secure a reduction in the number of the Gentlemen of the Privy Chamber = more control
- secured the removal of Henry's Groom of the Stool (Sir William Compton)
- replaced him with the more compliant Henry Norris
41
What is the existing debate around the purpose of the Eltham Ordinances?
- Peter Gwyn argued that the purpose was purely financial
- many Gentlemen of the Privy Chamber lost their posts as well as household servants
- David Starkey argued that the Eltham Ordinances reflected Wolsey's fear that the Amicable Grant might make him so unpopular that he could lose his political influence over Henry VIII
42
What were the economic policies of Wolsey?
- involved in problem of enclosure
- 1517 began national enquiry to find amount of land enclosed and the effects it was having
- legal cases drawn up against landlords who enclosed land without proper permission
- further investigation in 1518
- but suspended in 1523 until 1526 due to opposition from landowners
43
How did foreign policy impact trade and the economy?
- late 1520s, Wolsey's alliance with France against Spain caused problems
- England had little money
- main weapon was trade embargo against Spain, which controlled the Netherlands
- trade embargo impacted English cloth trade very badly
- coincided with bad harvest
- resulted in widespread unemployment, which was made worse by rising prices
44
What did Wolsey do in 1526 to try and help the economic problem?
- undertook a recoinage
- increased number of coins in circulation, but reduced the value/weight of silver coins
45
What was the result of the debasement of the coinage?
- stimulated exports
- contributed to rise in prices, as coins were seen as worthless
46
What did the problems over resolving 'the King's Great Matter' lead to?
- short term led to Wolsey's downfall
- long term led to establishment of royal supremacy
47
What was 'the King's Great Matter'?
- Henry dissatisfied with his marriage to Catherine of Aragon
- only had one child (Mary) and no male heir
- Henry in love with Anne Boleyn
- Henry required Wolsey to secure a papal dispensation for the annulment of his marriage to Catherine
48
How did Henry himself help resolve the matter?
- Henry found biblical justification which could form basis of the annulment
- prohibition of a man to marry his brother's widow
- as Catherine had been married briefly to Prince Arthur, Henry argued that the permission to marry Catherine was invalid
- claimed that in God's eyes his marriage to Catherine was illegal, so he could marry Anne
49
What was the problem with the biblical justification that Henry found for the annulment?
- Catherine claimed that her marriage to Arthur had never been consummated
- so the biblical ban did not apply
50
What did Wolsey do in May 1527 to help Henry's case?
- used his power as Papal Legate/personal representative of the Pope to bring Henry before a fake court to 'accuse' him of living in sin
- however, Catherine refused to accept the court's verdict
- appealed to the Pope
51
What were the events of the fall of Wolsey?
- after two years of diplomacy, the Pope sent an envoy, Campeggio, to hear Henry's case
- the hearing was opened but then soon adjourned
- Wolsey had failed to give Henry the annulment
52
Why was Wolsey already unpopular, therefore making his fall not entirely unexpected?
- forced 1523 subsidy through Parliament
- imposing Amicable Grant
53
What happened to Wolsey?
- October 1529 charged with praemunire
- offense against the Crown committed by asserting papal legal supremacy
- surrendered himself and all his possessions
- November 1530 arrested, but died on the way to being executed on 29 November
54
Who was Thomas More?
- Chancellor
- able scholar
- strong humanist beliefs
- reputation for putting his principles before everything else
- targeted criticism at land owning elite
- bad replacement for Wolsey
- friend of Erasmus
- did not support the annulment
55
What was More's work under Henry VIII?
- More's writings became favourite of Henry
- deeply sympathetic for Catherine and was concerned about Henry's treatment of her and his willingness to support Church reformers as a way to obtain divorce
- harsh persecution of reformers in 1528 and again 1530 - 31
- wanted to attack Lutheran influences within the Church
56
What was More like in comparison to Wolsey?
- More had rigid principles, whereas Wolsey was prepared to seize opportunities
- Wolsey prepared to act flexibly to get Henry the outcome he wanted
57
How important was the role of Thomas More?
- important but not to a really large extent
- More wasn't a Chief Minister and so didn't have as much power, making him less effective
- More wasn't in position for very long, so not as much impact as others
- but did target reformers and Lutheran influences
58
What did Henry do between 1529 and early 1532?
applied a number of measures designed to pressure the clergy into supporting his case for divorce
59
What helped Henry gain support for the divorce?
- the common ground he had with religious reformers wanting radical religious changes
- common view that the Church was the main obstacle
60
What was the role of the Lollards in attempting to progress the divorce?
- supporters of Luther
- along with some general anti-clericalism encouraged by humanist writings all came together in support of Church reform
- for the reformers, the problems facing the Church could only be solved by improving religious leadership
- strengthen royal power to protect and develop Church in England
61
What was the role of William Tyndale in attempting to progress the divorce?
- 1528 published The Obedience of the Christian Man
- argued that kings had authority from God giving them responsibility for the souls and bodies of their subjects
- royal authority was supreme above and other power
- his book was banned in England
- however, Anne Boleyn had a copy sent to her from France, which she showed Henry
62
What is the significance of Henry knowing about William Tyndale's writings and other courtiers who had heard similar ideas whilst travelling Europe (such as Cromwell)?
- when Henry found himself obstructed by Rome and the Pope's authority, he would have plenty of ideas and suggestions presented to him to find a way to resolve the problem
63
What was the role of Henry himself in attempting to progress the divorce?
- initially put pressure on English clergy not to oppose him
- also put pressure on Pope Clement VII
- moved to challenging the Pope over who would control the English Church
64
What power did the Pope have that would have made Henry wary of challenging him too much?
- power to excommunicate Henry
- all oaths of loyalty taken by his subjects would no longer apply
- rebellion would be sanctioned
65
What was Thomas Cromwell's background?
- born 1485
- humble origins
- went to Netherlands in his teens
- moved to Italy and served as a soldier
- returned to England in 1516
- married
- employed in the household of Wolsey
66
What was Cromwell's rise to power?
- 1519, had achieved important position in Wolsey's household
- attended Inns of Court in 1524
- 1529 was elected MP and played an active role in attacking abuses within the Church
- 1531 became a member of the Royal Council
67
What was the role of Cromwell under Henry?
- by 1532 had taken over control of Henry's divorce
- 1532 became Master of the King's Jewels
- 1533 became Chancellor of the Exchequer and Master of the Rolls
- 1535 appointed Vicar General
- 1536 made Lord Privy Seal and made Principle Secretary of the Royal Council and became a Baron
- 1540 became Lord Great Chamberlain and the Earl of Essex
68
What did Cromwell do between 1532 and 1536?
- devised a strategy for the divorce and Acts that destroyed the power of Rome
- created the Church of England and gave Henry power over it
69
What was Cromwell's key to success?
anticipating Henry's needs and giving him what he wanted
70
What brought the 1529 to 1531 conciliar government to an end?
- emergence of Cromwell
- had advanced his career under Wolsey
- after Wolsey's death, rose swiftly
- especially due to his proposal to enable Henry to secure the annulment
- suggested Henry make a break with Rome and place himself as head of an English Church
71
What happened to the role of Parliament between 1529 and 1536?
- developed, when 'Reformation Parliament' was in session
- the initial reason for calling another parliament was to deal with Wolsey
- however, this reason died when Wolsey died
- afterwards, its attention was turned towards the divorce and the Church
72
What changes happened under Cromwell?
- role of the royal household diminished
- his own position within the household was given a new importance and status
- Privy Council assumed significant role in managing government
- Parliament grew in importance
73
What were the key dates for the process of the divorce?
1529 - 1533
74
How was pressure put on the clergy in 1529?
- Parliament encouraged to voice anti-clerical views
- Cromwell began collecting evidence of abuses
75
What is the overall significance of the pressure on the clergy in 1529?
somewhat significant as it starts the move away from the Church
76
How was pressure put on the clergy in 1530?
- revival of praemunire
- 15 upper clergy charged with supporting Wolsey's abuse of power against Henry
77
How was pressure put on the Pope in 1530?
- Oxbridge scholars were sent to European universities to find support for Henry's divorce
78
What is the overall significance of the pressures on the clergy and Pope in 1530?
fairly significant as it removed the remains of the threat from Wolsey, and finding European support
79
How was pressure put on the clergy in 1531?
- Henry 'pardoned' the clergy of crimes against him, but demanded they recognise him as the sole protector and supreme head of the Church
- they accepted this 'as far as the law of Christ allows'
80
What is the overall significance of the pressure put on the clergy in 1531?
very, as it was a sustained attack on the clergy and a decrease of the Pope's power
81
How was pressure put on the clergy in 1532?
- March: Cromwell introduced 'Supplication Against the Ordinances' into House of Commons
- call on Henry to deal with abuses of the clergy
- as a result, Cromwell was invited to join Henry's inner circle of advisors on the Royal Council
- May: Henry demanded that Church agree to the 'Submission of the Clergy'
- document giving him the power to veto Church laws and choose bishops, even if not approved by Rome
- resignation of Sir Thomas More accepted
82
How was pressure put on the Pope in 1532?
- Jan: Act of Parliament passed to prevent payment of annates to Rome
- significant attack on the Pope's rights over the clergy
- Aug: death of Archbishop of Canterbury (William Warham)
- Henry asked the Pope to appoint Thomas Cranmer, who had Protestant views
83
What is the overall significance of the pressures put on the clergy and the Pope in 1532?
- very significant as it increased pressure on the papacy and increased anti-clerical views in Parliament
- increased the power of Cromwell
84
How was pressure put on the clergy in 1533?
- Jan: Henry secretly married Anne Boleyn (now pregnant)
85
How was pressure put on the Pope in 1533?
- Act in Restraint of Appeals was passed by Parliament
- denying Henry's subjects the right to appeal to the Pope against decisions in English Church courts
- effectively prevented Catherine from seeking the Pope's arbitration when the divorce came before the courts
86
What is the overall significance of the pressures put on the clergy and the Pope in 1533?
- fairly significant as decreases the power of the Pope, and was a blow to Catherine regarding the divorce as she would be unable to get help from the Pope
87
How were both the divorce and break with Rome accomplished?
through the use of statute law (Acts of Parliament) , whose supremacy over canon law (Church law) was firmly established
88
What made Cromwell's task easier?
the fact that the church had become weaker
89
What 4 factors had weakened the Church, and how?
- impact of Humanism
- weakened by criticisms of Erasmus and Colet
- challenge to Church's legal supremacy
- challenged in 1528 by lawyer Christopher St. German, who asserted the superiority of English law over cannon law of the Church
- intellectual influences
- Collectanea Satis Copiosa was a collection of historical documents compiled by Thomas Cranmer and Edward Foxe
- looked to justify Henry's divorce on the basis of historical and legal principles
- influence of continental universities
- Henry had sought and received opinions on his divorce from continental universities, some of which were favourable
- Henry humiliated Thomas More by requiring him to present the favourable opinions to both houses of Parliament
90
Why was the annulment issue forced after Henry and Anne consummated their relationship?
because any child conceived needed to be legitimate so that (if male) that it could be the male heir
91
What did Henry and the authorities of the English Church have to do?
openly defy the Pope
92
When did Henry and Anne marry and what did the Catholic Church think?
- Henry and Anne married secretly in January 1533
- Catholic Church saw it as invalid
93
When was Henry's marriage to Catherine annulled?
- May 1533
- by Archbishop Cranmer
- Anne crowned shortly after
94
Why had the problem of succession not been solved?
- although Anne's child was legitimate, she gave birth to a girl (Princess Elizabeth) not a boy
95
What were the measures that from 1533 onwards Cromwell passed to achieve the break from Rome and establish royal supremacy?
- Act in Restraint of Appeals
- Act of Succession
- Act of Supremacy
- Treason Act
- Act Annexing First Fruits and Tenths to the Crown
96
What was the Act in Restraint of Appeals?
- April 1533
- founded on evidence of the Collectanea
- monarch possessed imperial jurisdiction which was not subject to any foreign power
- declared that appeals could not be made to Rome regarding Church court decisions
97
What were the consequences of the Act in Restraint of Appeals?
Catherine could not appeal to Rome against her marriage annulment
98
What was the Act of Succession?
- April 1534
- declared that Henry's marriage to Catherine was void
- succession should be vested in the children of his marriage to Anne
- to deny the validity of Henry's marriage to Anne was treasonable
- oath should be taken to affirm an individual's acceptance of the new marriage
99
What were the consequences of the Act of Succession?
- legitimises any children from Henry and Anne's marriage
- cements the break with Rome further
100
What was the Act of Supremacy?
- Nov 1534
- gave legislative force to royal supremacy
- the king is the Supreme Head of the Church of England
101
What were the consequences of the Act of Supremacy?
- effectively accomplished the break from Rome
102
What was the Treason Act?
- Nov 1534
- tightened
- treason could be committed by spoken word as well as by deed or writing
103
What were the consequences of the Treason Act?
- increase in fear and control of the people
104
What was the Act Annexing First Fruits and Tenths to the Crown?
- Nov 1534
- acceptable to pay annates to the king
- whereas 'intolerable' when paid to the Pope
105
What were the consequences of the Act Annexing First Fruits and Tenths to the Crown?
- increased the financial burden on the clergy
- strengthened royal supremacy
- increased Crown finances
- gives Henry even more control esp over clergy
106
To what extent did Cromwell reform government?
- Elton argues:
- Cromwell modernised the system of government from one that focused on personal monarchy to one that was more bureaucratic
107
What are Elton's three main sections of argument?
- constitutional revolution
- political revolution
- bureaucratic revolution
108
What were Elton's points for a constitutional revolution?
- Henry became head of the Church and State
- extension of royal authority over Wales and semi-independent regions
109
How was the constitutional revolution challenged?
- the Crown already had significant influence over church appointments and emergency taxation
110
What were Elton's points for a political revolution?
- 'King and Parliament' became 'King-in-Parliament'
- importance of Parliament
- legislating for the Reformation
- amount and scope of legislation
- procedural improvements
- composition of lords
111
How was the political revolution challenged?
- Parliament developed because the king needed its support
- it was used less under the later Tudors and Elizabeth successfully controlled its claims to be a partner in government
112
What were Elton's points for a bureaucratic revolution?
- emergence of Privy Council as the engine of government
- role of king's principle secretary (Cromwell) as coordinating minister, rather than Lord Chancellor
- development of specialised departments of government (such as financial courts)
113
How was the bureaucratic revolution challenged?
- government remained essentially personal, reflecting personality and interests of the monarch
- some specialisation had already taken place in medieval period (but reversed during War of the Roses)
- not all of Cromwell's reforms were to survive in the long term
114
What are the sections of government that Cromwell reformed?
- Royal Council
- financial management
- the King's advisors
- power of the Crown
- role and importance of Parliament
115
What is the overview of the reform of the Royal Council?
- Henry VII met regularly with Royal Council
- during Henry VIII's reign, more professional Privy Council emerged
- had fewer people than original Royal Council
- 1530s there was a move towards smaller groups
116
To what extent did Cromwell reform the Royal Council?
- partial significance/moderate extent
- historians disagree whether it appeared at all in 1530s, or was a creation of the early 1540s, after Cromwell's fall
- many argue that it was a reaction to circumstance rather than a planned change
117
What is the overview of the reform of financial management?
- the Tudors generally continued the system introduced by Edward IV, by managing national finance through Privy Chamber
- gave monarch significant control over day to day decisions about income and expenditure
- Cromwell created new financial institutions alongside the Privy Chamber to manage new revenues generated by the break with Rome
- 4 new departments created
- by 1540 increasing specialism introduced into management of finances, though Cromwell still recognised the importance of the Privy Chamber and continued to use it
118
What were the 4 new departments created by Cromwell in reform of financial management?
- the Court of Augmentations
- controlled land and finances previously under control of Catholic Church
- the Court of General Surveyors
- initially handled some of the ex-monastic land, but soon amalgamated with Court of Augmentations
- the Court of First Fruits and Tenths
- collected money previously sent to Rome
- the Court of Wards
- the King had the ancient feudal right to collect money from the estate of a minor (under 21) who had inherited
119
To what extent did Cromwell reform financial management?
- somewhat large extent/notable
- fairly big change, but only really came about through break with Rome
- still reliance on Privy Chamber
120
What is the overview of the reform of the King's advisors?
- professional administrators rather than untrained nobility and clergy were needed to maintain the system
- both Wolsey and Cromwell represented the new type of government official (hard working and humble origins)
- unlike the nobility, they depended on the king for promotions and titles
- making them an utterly loyal band of royal servants
121
To what extent did Cromwell reform the King's advisors?
- fairly large extent
- because of financial reforms, had to ensure new advisors were professional, resulting in them being more efficient
- had to work hard to please the king, making them very loyal
- but if they fail, that is their downfall
122
What is the overview of the reform of the powers of the Crown?
*link to 6KQ*
- Cromwell tried to make it seen that Henry was supreme in his own lands
- Act in Restraint of Appeals (1533), no Englishman should have the automatic right to appeal to Rome to give judgements in religious cases
- Cromwell also saying that England was an independent political body
- used the break with Rome to extend royal power across England more evenly
- 1536 Act of Union with Wales reorganised local government in Wales and the marches (borderland between England and Wales)
- an Act against Liberties and Franchises removed and restricted special powers exercised by regional nobles in remote parts of England (such as those held by the Bishop in the Palatinate of Durham
123
To what extent did Cromwell reform the powers of the Crown?
- fairly large extent
- increased the power of Henry, especially in areas where he had limited control beforehand
- but not necessarily reform as such because the power of the Church had already been reduced and Henry's power also increased, both helped by the break with Rome
124
What is the overview of the reform of the role and importance of Parliament?
- 1530s, Cromwell used Parliament extensively to enact legislation needed to legalise break with Rome and strengthen royal authority in outlying regions
- beforehand, Wolsey rarely called Parliament, using it only if unavoidable
- suggesting that there was nothing to indicate the role that Parliament would play in the 1530s (i.e. nothing much to do with Wolsey)
- 1529 Parliament lasted for 7 years and passed a range of laws
- stability and workload helped Parliament develop its procedures and give MPs more experience
- by the end of the 1530s, it was recognised that statute law made by the King-in-Parliament represented ultimate authority in England and Wales and could be applied to virtually any aspect of life and society
- if any future monarchs wanted to change any laws that had been made, they would have to do so in cooperation with Parliament
125
Why did Cromwell use Parliament so extensively, unlike any of his predecessors?
as he needed the status of statute law to strengthen the changes he was making in the Church and Parliament
126
To what extent did Cromwell reform the role and importance of Parliament?
- very large extent
- previously the use of Parliament was rare
- Cromwell made it so that Parliament had to be used if a monarch wanted to change any laws that had been made
- also increased control and stability, and law was more evenly applied across England
127
Overall, to what extent did Cromwell oversee a reform of government?
- large extent
- increase role and importance of Parliament
- increase power of Crown
- improves financial management
- make advisors more efficient and loyal
- but:
- emergence of Privy Council, possibly not Cromwell reform
- lots of help from the break with Rome in increasing power of the Crown
128
What were the events of the fall of Anne Boleyn?
- relations between Anne and Cromwell deteriorated publicly
- Cromwell thought his relationship with Henry as well as his life was threatened
- Cromwell allied with the conservatives and persuaded Henry that Anne's flirtatious nature had led to adultery
- Anne was accused of adultery and incest (and therefore treason)
- executed on 19 May 1536
129
What were the consequences of the fall and execution of Anne Boleyn?
in the eyes of the Catholic Church, Henry was a widower and now free to remarry
130
What were the events of the fall of Thomas Cromwell?
- by 1540 Cromwell's influence was declining
- the catalyst for his downfall was his failure to manage Henry's marital affairs satisfactorily
- 1537, Jane Seymour (3rd wife) died after giving birth to Prince Edward, the male heir to the throne
- in 1540, Cromwell had tried to reconcile Henry with the League of Schmalkalden by arranging a marriage with the German Protestant princess, Anne of Cleves
- Henry's marriage to Anne of Cleves was unhappy as she was unsuitable to Henry personally, and the match became unwelcome politically
- marriage quickly annulled
- destroyed remains of Cromwell's credibility with the king
- gave Cromwell's enemies (Duke of Norfolk etc) the chance to bring about his downfall
- Norfolk conveniently had an unmarried niece at court, free to wed Henry (Catherine Howard)
- Cromwell accused of treason and heresy at a Council meeting
- executed on 28 July 1540
- Henry married Catherine Howard on the same day
131
What was government like in Henry's last years (1540 - 1547)?
- 1539 to 1540, a form of conciliar government was restored
- it was a different form of government as the fall of Cromwell saw the emergence of a Privy Council with fixed membership, supported by a secretary who kept record of proceedings
- debate about how much power Henry held
- 1540 power temporarily lay with conservatives in the Council, such as Norfolk, Gardiner and Wriothesley
- it was the problems created by Henry's marital issues that helped shift the balance of power
132
What were the events that led to the execution of Catherine Howard?
- Norfolk had overlooked the fact that Catherine was already sexually experienced
- when Henry found out and allegations emerged that Catherine had committed adultery with her distant cousin (Thomas Culpepper), Henry was furious
- Henry asked Parliament to pass an Act of Attainder making it so that a person accused of treason could be found guilty and punished without trial
- Culpepper executed on 10 Dec 1541
- Catherine executed on 13 Feb 1542
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What were the consequences of Catherine's execution?
- several of her relatives were also implicated and disgraced
- although Norfolk managed to remove himself from the situation, he was wounded politically
- Norfolk's problems were furthered when Henry decided to marry Katherine Parr, a Protestant, as this posed a danger to his ambitions
- Norfolk tried unsuccessfully to embroil Katherine in accusations of heresy
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What were the political rivalries at the death of Henry VIII?
- as Henry's health began to deteriorate, political rivalries intensified
- whoever was most influential in the king's last months was likely to be in a position to dominate under his successor
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What was Edward Seymour's play, and what was Norfolk's position in the battle to gain influence?
- Edward Seymour was the uncle of Jane Seymour's son, Edward, the heir to the throne
- but Norfolk was compromised by his son's arrogance (Earl of Surrey), who threatened the king's throne and was executed for treason
- Henry consented to Norfolk's death
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What happened to Norfolk following Henry VIII's death on 28 Jan 1547?
- Norfolk was spared the axe, as the Council did not want to inaugurate the new reign with bloodshed
- Norfolk was imprisoned in the Tower for the whole of Edward VI's reign
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What is the summary of Henry VIII's government?
- had reigned for 38 years
- complicated marital politics
- Henry seen as negatively
- unpredictable tyrant
- destroyed much of positivity of English life
- Henry seen as positively
- responsible for necessary and transformational change
- embodiment of an English national identity
