Good exam Q's Flashcards
Compare these flagella types: isokontous, heterokontous, haptonema.
- Isokontous: Flagella (more than 1) that are similar in length and type.
- Heterokontous: Dissimilar flagella (more than 1), of unequal length, and/or one smooth and one hairy (“tinsellated”).
- Haptonema: Superficially resembles flagellum but different internal anatomy (no 9+2 microtubular structure).
- function uncertain but may be used for defence, food capture, or attachment.
- exclusive to Division Haptophyta.
Name an algal group that is haptonemous.
Division haptophyta.
Isogamous vs Anisogamous vs Oogamous (sexual reproduction)
Isogamous: morphologically similar gametes, + and -, most primitive form.
Anisogamous: Morphologically dissimilar.
Oogamous: One small motile male gamete (sperm) and one non-motile gamete (egg) = zygote, most advanced form.
Why do diatoms produce a cyst?
They progressively get smaller with each instance of sexual reproduction, so they create a cyst (sexual reproduction), which restores them to a larger size.
Prokaryote vs Mesokaryote vs Eukaryote
Prokaryotes: coiled DNA, no nucleus or other organelles
-Mesokaryotes: chromosomes but no interphase and no histones, organelles, intermediate nucleus (intermediate in evolution of prokaryotes and eukaryotes)
Eukaryotes: chromosomes, nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles
In cyanophyta, all groups except Chamaesiphonales have gas vacuoles (pseudovacuoles).
Describe what they are.
Self-erecting cylindrical vesicles (in bundles) containing atmospheric gases that gives buoyancy.
Filling with air lets them float to the surface but increases cell turgor pressure (due to more light = more photosynthates/ sugars produced = higher osmotic pressure), causes the vacuoles to break, the cyanobacteria then sinks to darker waters and uses up the sugars, osmotic pressure is released and more gas vacuoles are made, and then it floats up again.
In the hierarchal system used for algal identification, Classes are subdivided into ____.
Orders
____ is one group of algae that can produce toxins.
Cyanobacteria
Diatoms
It is now believed that the eukaryotic chloroplast developed by the process of ____.
Endosymbiosis
The thallus of a brown alga such as kelp has a(n) _____ to help in anchoring it to a surface.
Holdfast
The _____ phase in a batch culture occurs when the growth rate equals the mortality rate.
Stationary
Ralph Lewin is well-known among algal biologists for ____.
Discovering Prochloron, an intermediate form between prokaryotes and eukaryotes
Cyanophyta
A) cell covering
B) storage product
C) Diplontic lifecycle (yes, no, maybe)
A) cell wall of muramic acid
B) cyanophycin granules/ myxophycean starch (α-1,4 linked glucans)
C) no - no sexual reproduction
Bacillariophyceae
A) cell covering
B) storage product
C) Diplontic lifecycle (yes, no, maybe)
A) frustule made of silica
B) chrysolaminarin
C) yes
Synurophyceae
A) cell covering
B) storage product
C) Diplontic lifecycle (yes, no, maybe)
A) scales
B) chrysolaminarin
C) no
Describe each word in the pair as they pertain to the subject matter of this course, and explain the difference between them.
Epilithic / Epiphytic
Epilithic algae grow attached to rocks whereas epiphytic algae grow attached to other plants.
Describe each word in the pair as they pertain to the subject matter of this course, and explain the difference between them.
Pennate / Centric
Pennate diatoms are bilaterally symmetric, usually with a raphe or pseudoraphe, and one or two chloroplast. Centric diatoms are radially symmetric, no raphe, and one to many chloroplasts.
Describe each word in the pair as they pertain to the subject matter of this course, and explain the difference between them.
Tinsel / Whiplash
A tinsellated flagellum is hairy and longer, whereas a whiplash flagellum is smooth with fine hairs or no hairs at all and much shorter. The tinsellated flagellum is used for motility and capture of prey, whereas the whiplash flagellum is not involved in motility but does help the tinsellated one to bring in the prey closer to the cell before being phagocytosed.
Describe each word in the pair as they pertain to the subject matter of this course, and explain the difference between them.
Colony / Coenobium
A colony is an aggregation of a varying number of individual cells whereas a coenobium is a type of colony where there are a fixed number of cells (usually in multiples of 2, 4, 16…).
Describe each word in the pair as they pertain to the subject matter of this course, and explain the difference between them.
Zoospore / Aplanospore
A zoospore is a motile, asexual reproductive structure whereas an aplanospore is a nonmotile, asexual reproductive structure.
Describe each word in the pair as they pertain to the subject matter of this course, and explain the difference between them.
True branching / False branching
True branching occurs as a result of cell division in a second plane whereas false branching occurs (usually in Cyanobacteria) due to aggregation of two filaments, sometimes at a dead cell and are joined together by mucilage.
Describe anoxygenic.
A process where oxygen is NOT produced, for example, Photosystem I.
Describe mesokaryotic.
A type of algae thought to be an intermediate between prokaryotes and eukaryotes in which the chromosomes are large, with little or no histone protein, there is no interphase during mitosis division and the nuclear membrane persists.
Describe BMAA.
Betamethyl-L-alanine is a neurotoxin produced by Cyanobacteria that form symbionts with the cycad roots from Guam. It is thought to biomagnify in food webs and cause neurodegenerative diseases in human patients with Alzheimer’s disease or Parkinson’s disease.
Describe phagotrophy.
A method of feeding used by some heterotrophic algae (and other organisms) in which living or non-living particles are engulfed and brought into the cell through endocytosis. The cell’s membrane makes an infolding to form a vesicle, then the cell digests the material.
Describe oligotrophy.
A nutrient-poor water body where centric diatoms and other algae can be found in.
Describe pseudoparenchymatous.
A complex, three-dimensional aggregation of cells in which individual linear filaments may still be distinguished.
What are some features common to ALL members of the Division Chromophyta?
-heterokontous flagella at some point in lifecycle
-fucoxanthin as a common accessory pigment
-stacked thylakoids in chloroplasts
-chrysolaminarin as the storage product for photosynthate
(note that fucoxanthin is not found in all chromophytes)
This statement is false. Rewrite it to make it true.
Diatoms are the only algae capable of fixing nitrogen.
Cyanobacteria are the only algae capable of fixing nitrogen.
This statement is false. Rewrite it to make it true.
Dinoflagellates are protected from herbivores by their covering of cellulose plates.
Dinoflagellates are not protected from herbivores by their covering of cellulosic plates.
This statement is false. Rewrite it to make it true.
An auxotrophic alga switches between autotrophy and heterotrophy depending on environmental conditions.
A mixotrophic alga switches between autotrophy and heterotrophy depending on environmental conditions.
This statement is false. Rewrite it to make it true.
The purpose of sexual reproduction in algae is to create genetic diversity.
The purpose of sexual reproduction in algae is to resist environmental change and to regain proper size (asexual reproduction causes diatoms to shrink 1/2 the size of the parent).
This statement is false. Rewrite it to make it true.
The light microscope greatly improved our understanding of algae by allowing us to see cellular ultrastructure.
The transmission electron microscope greatly improved our understanding of algae by allowing us to see cellular ultrastructure.
What is mucilage and why do algae produce it?
- composed of water, sugar and proteins
- creates a clear slime
- used in false branching Cyanobacteria to link two branches not physically attached to each other
- allows cells to stick to each other in colonies
- protects algae from desiccation
- allows for algae to sink slower, provides buoyancy
- dissuades herbivores
Which algal group is heterokontous?
Chromophyta (also called heterokontophyta)
Name an algal division without flagella.
Rhodophyta and cyanophyta (blue green algae)
Paraflagellar body
- Another name for eyespot or photoreceptor
- Many flagellated cells have swelling close to base of flagella
- 2 parts: pigments that sense light, and the photoreceptor itself
- Involved in phototactic responses
Sporangium
spore producing cell
function of cysts
- survive adverse environments
- increase size in dinoflagellates
- genetic recombination and diversity
Metalimnion
Metalimnion: intermediate layer, allows for both light and higher nutrient level, best of both worlds, facultative heterotroph found here due to capturing the dying algae that are sinking towards the bottom of the lake= Metalimnion Blooms
pigment all photosynthetic algae have
chlorophyl a
pigments in phaeophyceae (brown algae)
chlorophyll A, C1, C2, fucoxanthin, beta-carotene
storage products in phaeophyceae
Storage product: laminarin (similar to chrysolaminarin)
Phaeophyceae
A) cell covering
B) storage product
A. Inner layer of cellulose fibrils with alginate. Inner layer of alginate and fucoidan.
B. laminarin (similar to chrysolaminarin)
Pseudoparenchymatous
Pseudoparenchymatous - Filamentous mass of cells in which individual filaments are difficult to distinguish
Uniseriate vs Multiseriate
Filamentous (thread-like) usually composed of single rows of cells (uniseriate) and sometimes several rows (multiseriate)
Filamentous vs pseudoparenchymatous vs parenchymatous
* all in brown algae
- Filamentous
Thread-like, usually composed of single rows of cells (uniseriate) and sometimes several rows (multiseriate)
Often epiphytic.
- Pseudoparenchymatous
Filamentous mass in which individual filaments difficult to distinguish
- Parenchymatous
Mass of cells produced by division in three planes, forming solid axes, blades, or complex thalli with specialized regions (e.g., Laminaria)
Apical meristem in phaeophyceae
Apical=at ends/tips of branches
intercalary meristem in phaeophyceae
Intercalary=within branches; may be transitional between fronds and stipe
trichothallic meristem in phaeophyceae
Trichothallic=at base of terminal hair (filament)
meristodermal meristem in phaeophyceae
Meristodermal=region located on thallus surface (increases girth)
Algin / Alginate / Alginic Acid
- sugar that retains or absorbs water and forms a viscous material
- thickeness varies between species
- outer, slimy, amorphous
- part of the cell wall in brown algae; protects against desiccation, pounding waves, temperature changes, and salinity
- absorb 300X their weight in water (hygroscopic polysaccharide), used as a thickening agent in shampoo, cosmetics, food
pyrenoids
- in chloroplasts of all chromophyta (diatoms, brown algae, chrysophytes, synurids
- function: carbon fixation, produces ATP
Lamellae
Thylakoids stacked in threes
Number of chloroplast membranes vs endosymbiosis
2 membrane chloroplasts = primary endosymbiosis
4 membrane chloroplasts = secondary endosymbiosis
Physodes (+which group)
- Vesicles in cytoplasm of phaeophyta associated with chloroplast
- Contain colourless, highly refractive polyphenolic compounds such as tannins
- Are colourless, highly absorptive of the UV light to protect the cell, the algae live in shallow water where ultra-violet light is more abundant at the surface compared to going deeper in the water
Tannins (+which group), and what are the functions?
- held in physodes (vesicles) in phaeophyceae
- readily oxidized in air, resulting in formation of brown or black pigment, phycophaein, giving many dried brown algae a characteristic black colour
- Absorb UV light and protect the thallus from UV light damage
- Inhibit growth of epiphytes (something growing on a plant, which can shade the brown algae)
- Discourage herbivores due to astringency
- Play a role in fertilization by blocking polyspermy (more than one sperm unites with the egg)
4 functions of tannins in phaeophyta
- Absorb UV light and protect the thallus from UV light damage
- Inhibit growth of epiphytes (something growing on a plant, which can shade the brown algae)
- Discourage herbivores due to astringency
- Play a role in fertilization by blocking polyspermy (more than one sperm unites with the egg)
Plasmodesmata
in brown algae, adjacent cells share common end wall which enable intercellular connection
-Resemble sieve plates in vascular plants
Siliceous cysts and cells walls, such as those formed by members of Chromophyta are never found in _____
Siliceous cysts and cells walls, such as those formed by other members of Chromophyta (e.g., diatoms, synurids) are never found in Phaeophyceae
Pheromone secreted by brown alga Ectocarpus that attracts pluriocular gametangia males
Ectocarpine
Pheromone secreted by egg (dioecious gametophytes) in Laminariales (brown alga)
Lamoxirene
_____ =
- Small cavities scattered over surface, appearing as small bumps, that aid in nutrient uptake
- Order Fucales (brown algae)
Cryptostomates
Brown algae orders with diplontic life cycle
order fucales
pheromone produced by brown algae, order fucales
fucoserratene
- “to steal plastids”
- cryptomonad chloroplasts ingested by ciliates and dinoflagellates remain functional, producing starch, for several days
Kleptoplastidity
- In Dinoflagellates
- Membrane-bound crystalline rod (penetrates into cell)
- A projectile organelle to deter predators (similar to discobolocytes or ejectosomes) or to escape
- At the suture lines (junction point of plates)
Trichocyst
______: tinsel or hairy flagellum
______: smooth or whiplash flagellum
Pantonematic: tinsel or hairy flagellum
Acronematic: smooth or whiplash flagellum
- only algal group that contains this unique xanthophyll pigment are the Dinoflagellates
- an accessory pigment
- gives them a colour other than green
- a modified phycoerithrin
Peridinin
- in dinophyta
- thin and amorphous wall that thickens during cyst formation (replaces theca of dinoflagellates)
- material produced by spores
- extremely robust
- in pollen that has survived thousands of years
- are armored due to outer layer
Sporopollenin
- In dinophyta
- ____: flagellated zygote
- Planozygote: flagellated zygote
- In dinophyta
- _____: non-flagellated zygote (resting cyst), dormant stage
- Hypnozygote: non-flagellated zygote (resting cyst), dormant stage
organisms that live off dead organisms, dead organic matter
- dinoflagellates
Saprophytic
Fish killing toxin produced by dinoflagellates
Ichthyotoxin
photosynthetically produced limestone (ex. by dinoflagellates)
deposits of CaCO3 (calcium carbonate) called ____, created during photosynthesis
Marl
List and describe 2 hypotheses of dinoflagellate luminescence
burglar alarm hypothesis vs startle hypothesis
Possible reason they do it:
- Burglar alarm: attracts predators of dinoflagellate grazers
- Startle: Startles the grazers
- Dinoflagellate endotoxin
- 50 times more potent than curare to birds and mammals but nontoxic to shellfish that are its primary consumer
- function unknown, but may be anti-predator mechanism (does not benefit the individual that has been eaten but may benefit the others that may survive)
Saxitoxin
- electron dense area
- rigid
- gives the flagella a unique movement
- found in Euglenophyta
- more jerky movement, less flexible
- Euglnoid motion
Paraflagellar rod
surface of water interface where water meets air
neuston
Alga that has agar and carrageenan mucilage
red algae (rhodophyta)
Anti-environmentalism
the gradual adoption of unconscious behavior founded in ignorance of, and disdain for, the natural environment, usually acquired with egoism, consumerism, and self-indulgence
both male and female structures are on the same gametophyte
Monoecious
_____ = division of nucleus
karyokinesis = division of nucleus
_____ = division of cytoplasm
cytokinesis = division of cytoplasm
- “algae made”
- more primitive (in simpler forms, chlorophycean line)
- two daughter nuclei close together
- after mitosis division, spindle fibres disappear and are replaced by more microtubules perpendicular to plane of division
- new cell wall forms across microtubules by furrowing (ingrowth of cell membrane) or cell-plate formation (outward growth from centre)
Phycoplast
- “wall made”
- most advanced, found in higher green algae and more advanced plants (Charophycean line)
- after mitosis division, two daughter nuclei held far apart by persistent spindle fibres perpendicular to plane of division
- Golgi vesicles aggregate on spindle fibres and form new cell plate via furrowing or cell plate
Phragmoplast
daughter cells synthesize their own cell wall (don’t use parent cell wall)
Eleutheroschisis
cell wall of daughter cells is in part composed of the parental wall (recycling of parental wall)
Desmoschisis
- pancake stacks of thylakoids with some interconnection between grana
- resembles higher vascular plants
- areas stacked in columns by partial overlap of thylakoids
Pseudograna
- Large mass of specialized cells in parent colony (sexual reproduction)
- Produces daughter colonies by repeated mitosis within parental colony
- only the ___ reproduce
Gonidium, gonidia
- In green algae, order Volvocales
- inverted colonies
- Start off with flagella on the interior of the colony during both sexual and asexual reproduction, but a mechanism causes all the cells to invert so now flagellae or on the outside of the colony
Plakea
a daughter colony formed within one of the cells of a colony and duplicating in the parent
- Parental cell contents used up, but wall is not reused so the daughters stay in the empty cell for a while
Autocolony
doesn’t involve the production of a zygote, the gamete forms an azygospore
Parthenogenesis
- a pheromone named after the Greek Goddess that attracts men
- attracts the androspore in green algae reproduction (O. Oedogonium)
- no new genetic combinations!
- enhance the likelihood of successful sexual reproduction
Circein
____: live at the surface of the lake, well illuminated, those that are photosynthetic (autotrophs)
Epilimnion: live at the surface of the lake, well illuminated, those that are photosynthetic (autotrophs)
____: intermediate layer, allows for both light and higher nutrient level, best of both worlds, facultative heterotroph found here due to capturing the dying algae that are sinking towards the bottom of the lake
Metalimnion: intermediate layer, allows for both light and higher nutrient level, best of both worlds, facultative heterotroph found here due to capturing the dying algae that are sinking towards the bottom of the lake
____: at the bottom of the lake
Hypolimnion: at the bottom of the lake
- Green algae reproduction stage (asexual)
- Thick walled resting change, can stay in this form until conditions change
- Germinates into thallus
Androspore
- Stage in green alga reproduction
- Similar to vegetative cell but has thicker walls
- Develops into a regular vegetative cell
Codiolum
-two seperate filaments form a sort of ladder and are connected by a conjugation tube (lateral line up)
Scalariform conjugation
scalariform (two separate filaments)
lateral (between cells of same filament)
Protrusion of the wall form a bump then extend outwards to create the conjugation tube to connect the contents of the two filaments
- Conjugation canal formed by ___ between adjacent
cells
Papilla
small filaments on the exterior periphery of the filament in green alga class charophyceae
Corrugations
Chemicals produced by 1 plant is toxic to another plant
Chemicals from alga that negatively affects: Growth of another alga
Its own growth (autotoxicity)
Other microorganisms
Higher plants
Allelopathy
where photosynthesis offsets respiration (=), where growth is 0, not enough light for photosynthesis, this point is not the same for all organisms
Compensation point
- lighted part of the water (sufficient light to allow for photosynthesis)
- 3x the secchi disk depth
Photic zone
=wind driven convection
- caused by the wind where water starts to rotate, creates water motion (one “line” goes clockwise, other goes counterclockwise)
- upwelling=algae pulled up to the surface
- downwelling=algae pulled to the bottom
Parallel windrows visible on water surface
Spiral movement in direction of wind
Minimum 11 km/h needed for formation
Cells concentrated in upwelling zones between rotating water masses
Langmuir cells
- “Wind tide”
- Horizontal movement from upwind to downwind side of lake basin
- H2O level randomly and rapidly changes with the wind
- Vertical movement as epilimnion oscillates back and forth during and after wind activity
- Causes vertical and horizontal mixing of water column
Seiches
G=I+R-M-E-C G=\_\_\_\_ I=\_\_\_\_\_ R=\_\_\_\_\_ M=\_\_\_\_\_ E=\_\_\_\_\_ C=\_\_\_\_
G=I+R-M-E-C G=growth I=immigration R=reproduction M=Mortality E=Emigration C=Grazing
- ____ fungi produces zoospores that parasitize ____ (preferentially ____)
- Kitrid fungi produces zoospores that parasitize diatoms (preferentially Asterionella)
Bad smelling chemical produced by cyanobacteria in lake blooms
- Geosmin
- Methylisoborneol
