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1 - Algae > Final > Flashcards

Final Flashcards

1
Q

Sporangium vs Gametangium

A

Sporangium: Spore producing cell, diploid
Gametangium: Carries the gamete, haploid

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2
Q

Diplohaplontic lifecycle

A
  • alternation of generations with 2N sporophyte and N gametophyte
  • switches between haploid and diploid
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3
Q

Isomorphic generations

A

Similar N and 2N stages where sporophyte and gametophyte are similar in structure and general appearance

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4
Q

Heteromorphic generations

A

Dissimilar N and 2N stages where sporophyte is more complex structurally (parenchymatous or pseudoparenchymatous) and gametophyte is filaments

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5
Q

Heterotrichous

A

Different filaments

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6
Q

Plurilocular sporangia vs Unilocular sporangia vs Plurilocular gametangia (Brown Algae - Ectocarpus)

A

Plurilocular sporangia: have multiseriate region consisting of large number of smaller cells, each cell develops into asexual zoospore (2N) that produces new sporophyte, dominate at warmer temperatures

Unilocular sporangia: are enlarged cells where meiosis occurs followed by several mitosis divisions, releases 32 to 64 N spores, each giving rise to a gametophyte, dominate at cooler temperatures

Plurilocular gametangia: resemble plurilocular sporangia, gametes (N) are isogamous with laterally inserted flagella, males and females similar in appearance but functionally distinct, as females settle to bottom and secrete chemical called ectocarpene which attracts males, after gamete fusion, the zygote develops without a period of dormancy into new sporophyte (2N)

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7
Q

Plurilocular sporangia (Brown Algae - Ectocarpus)

A

Plurilocular sporangia: have multiseriate region consisting of large number of smaller cells, each cell develops into asexual zoospore (2N) that produces new sporophyte, dominate at warmer temperatures

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8
Q

Unilocular sporangia (Brown Algae - Ectocarpus)

A

Unilocular sporangia: are enlarged cells where meiosis occurs followed by several mitosis divisions, releases 32 to 64 N spores, each giving rise to a gametophyte, dominate at cooler temperatures

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9
Q

Plurilocular gametangia (Brown Algae - Ectocarpus)

A

Plurilocular gametangia: resemble plurilocular sporangia, gametes (N) are isogamous with laterally inserted flagella, males and females similar in appearance but functionally distinct, as females settle to bottom and secrete chemical called ectocarpene which attracts males, after gamete fusion, the zygote develops without a period of dormancy into new sporophyte (2N)

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10
Q

Ectocarpine

A

Pheromone secreted by brown algae (Ectocarpus) that attracts pluriocular gametangia males.

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11
Q

Pheromones

A

Chemicals involved to ensure sexual reproduction, usually attracts the male gametes to the female.

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12
Q

When would brown algae (Order Ectocarpales) produce pluriocular sporangia?

A

In good water temps (asexual)

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13
Q

When would brown algae (Order Ectocarpales) produce uniocular sporangia?

A

Initiated by water temperature cooling (sexual repro - for surviving environmental adversity)

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14
Q

Heteromorphic alternation of generations

A

Sporophyte is usually very large, the haploid gametophyte is usually microscopic

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15
Q

Dioecious gametophytes (Brown algae - Laminariales)

A
  • bear oogonia (female) and antheridia (male)
  • Oogonium produces one egg that remains attached and antheridium produces one sperm
  • Egg secretes pheromone (lamoxirene) that stimulates antheridia to release sperm that swim to egg
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16
Q

Sexual reproduction in brown algae - Laminariales:

  • Process, and parts used.
  • What’s produced.
  • Type of repro (iso, etc)
  • Dioecious or monoecious.
  • Pheromone?
A

􏰁 Sexuality is oogamous
􏰁 Sporophyte produces unilocular sporangia and paraphyses on frond suface (some kelps have specialized sporophylls)
􏰁 Produces N zoospores which produce microscope N gametophytes
􏰁 Dioecious gametophytes bear oogonia (female) and antheridia (male)
􏰁 Oogonium produces one egg that remains attached and antheridium produces one sperm
􏰁 Eggs secretes pheromone (lamoxirene) that stimulates antheridia to release sperm that swim to egg
􏰁 After fertilization, sporophyte overgrows gametophyte

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17
Q

Cryptostomates

A
  • Small cavities scattered over surface, appearing as small bumps, that aid in nutrient uptake
  • Order Fucales (brown algae)
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18
Q

Receptacles

A
  • Brown algae (order Fucales)
  • Specialized reproductive regions called receptacles at ends of branches
  • Receptacles contain conceptacles
  • Can be monoecious (one gamete) or dioecious (two gametes) conceptacles
  • Branches inside conceptacles produce gametangia: oogonia (larger, female) and antheridia (smaller, male)
  • Gametes released in packets through conceptacle opening into surrounding seawater during calm periods for maximum fertilization
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19
Q

Lamoxirene

A

Pheromone in brown algae, order laminariales - secreted by egg, stimulates antheridia to release sperm that swims to egg

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20
Q

Brown algae orders with diplontic life cycle

A

order fucales

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21
Q

fucoserratene

A

pheromone produced by brown algae, order fucales

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22
Q

Sexual reproduction in brown algae - Fucales:

A

􏰁 In antheridia, meiosis followed by repeated mitosis forms packets of 64 sperm
􏰁 In oogonia, meiosis and single mitosis forms packet of 8 eggs
􏰁 Gametes released in packets though conceptacle opening into surrounding seawater
􏰁 Gamete release restricted to calm periods for
maximum fertilization success
􏰁 Pheromone (fucoserratene) attracts sperm to eggs
􏰁 Zygotes secrete adhesive to aid in surface attachment

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23
Q

Is brown algae benthic or planktonic?

A

Larger species are benthic (rocky shores); only a few planktonic

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24
Q

What temp do brown algae prefer, and how big can they grow?

A
  • 􏰁 Phaeophyceae diversity greatest in colder (<20 °C) oceans of northern and southern hemispheres
  • Giants kelps may grow to 45-60 m in length (0.6 m/day) with blades 1.2 in length and 0.3 m in width: “Sequoia of the Seas” in vast underwater forests
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25
Q

Intertidal habitat

A

brown algae provide intertidal habitat by maintaining well-illuminated, moist environment under fronds for epiphytes and sessile invertebrates

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26
Q

What is the use for kelp (brown algae)?

A
  • Kelp eaten as vegetable, providing salts, vitamins, trace elements
  • Kelp harvested for ash (Na, K) for industry and used as fertilizer
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27
Q

Use for iodine.

A

Iodine reacts with starch (a storage product) and makes it turn black.

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28
Q

Alginate

A

􏰁 Alginates from Phaeophyceae cell wall
􏰁 Absorbs many times its weight in water
􏰁 Thickening agent, colloid stabilizer, and gelling agent in wide variety of foods (e.g., algin in fruit pie fillings stop fruit pulp from leaking into pastry), beverages (e.g., foam stabilizer in beer), textiles (dye thickener) and cosmetics
􏰁 Algin in pharmaceuticals regulate rate at which they are released into bloodstream
􏰁 Moisture retainer in loose, sandy soil
􏰁 Slow release of trace elements (organic fertilizer)

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29
Q

How are Tribophyceae (Xanthophyceae/ yellow algae) similar to chromophytes? 5 reasons.

A
  1. 􏰁 Thylakoids in stacks of three (lamellae)
  2. Reserve storage product is chrysolaminarin, commonly as
    oil or fat droplets
  3. Chlorophyll A as primary photosynthetic pigment, sometimes with accessory xanthophyll (just 3 classes) but no fucoxanthin so cells appear yellow-green or green 4. Chloroplasts surrounded by four membranes
  4. Cell wall has cellulose microfibrils with a small amount of silica, may consist of 2 overlapping halves like diatoms.
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30
Q

Difference between Tribophyceae (Xanthophyceae/ yellow algae) and green algae (Chlorophyta)?

A

􏰁 Distinguished by pigments and storage product: green algae have chlorophyll B and true starch

  • Tribophyceae have chloro A, may have xanthophyll (no fucoxanthin)
  • Chrysoplaminarin as storage product
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31
Q

Colonial

A

Aggregation of cells, are nonmotile and are embedded in common sheath of mucilage

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32
Q

Pyrenoids

A

where carbon fixation takes place in the chloroplast

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33
Q

Parietal

A

Around the cell (the periphery)

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34
Q

Endogenous vs Exogenous

A

Endogenous: cyst formed inside the cell
Exogenous: cyst formed outside the cell

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35
Q

Cell wall composition and morphology of tribophyceae

A
  • Composed of cellulose microfibrils with small amount of silica
    -􏰁 Sometimes consist of two overlapping halves (e.g.,
    Tribonema) but sometimes not visible without chemical (somewhat similar to diatoms)
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36
Q

Chromatophore

A

pigment containing plastid (chloroplast)

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37
Q

Chloroplasts + thylakoids + pyrenoids (present or not) of tribophyceae

A
  • 􏰁 Four membranes in chloroplasts
  • 􏰁 Parietal within cell, discoid in shape, yellow-green in colour
  • 􏰁 Vary in number from two to many
  • 􏰁 Thylakoids groups in threes (lamellae)
  • 􏰁 Pyrenoid present in many genera
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38
Q

Pigments and storage product of tribophyceae

A
  • 􏰁 Chlorophyll A with small amounts of C1 and C2
    -􏰁 Accessory pigments are β-carotene and xanthophylls
    (NO fucoxanthin)
    -􏰁 Principal storage product is chrysolaminarin
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39
Q

Flagellae of tribophyceae (morphology, number, photoreceptor present? eyespot?)

A

􏰁 When present (motile taxa, zoospores, gametes), they are typical heterokontous chromophyte type
􏰁 Long anterior tinsel flagellum with tripartite hairs (mastigonemes) and shorter posteriorly-directed whiplash flagellum inserted in anterior region of cell
􏰁 Have photoreceptor (flagellar swelling on shorter, smooth flagellum) and eyespot (in chloroplast)

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40
Q

Which reproductive stages are flagellated?

A

Zoospores and gametes

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41
Q

Algal groups with only asexual reproduction

A

tribophytes, cyanophyta

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42
Q

Reproduction in tribophyceae (asexual or sexual, and how)

A

􏰁 In most tribophytes, only known method is asexual: 􏰁 Vegetative cell division (fragmentation)

􏰁 Formation of zoospores (motile), aplanospores (nonmotile), or cysts

􏰁 Zoospores and aplanospores are produced by division of cellular cytoplasm into 1, 2 or several subunits and release from cell

􏰁 Cysts formed inside cell (endogenous)

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43
Q

Asexual reproduction (what’s formed, motile or not)

A
  • Vegetative cell division (fragmentation)

- Formation of zoospores (motile), aplanspores (nonmotile), or cysts

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44
Q

lifecycle type in tribophyceae?

A

haplontic

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45
Q

Cryptomonad

A

• Monad: small uniflagellates
• Crypto: hidden; reflect uncertain phylogeny
Cryptomonad: don’t understand fully on how they evolved

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46
Q

Sessile

A

non-motile

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47
Q

Lamellae

A

Three stacked thylakoids in chloroplast

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48
Q

What happens when iodine reacts with starch?

A

turns black

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49
Q

Vestibule

A

Insertion point on cell surface where flagella originates in (a groove)
- present in crypto monads

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50
Q

Algal group with plasma membrane modified as periplast

A

Cryptomonads

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51
Q

Periplast (+ what group has it)

A
  • Cryptomonads
  • Periplast goes around as a modified plasma membrane
  • Proteinaceous plates associated with inner side of the cell membrane, separated by ejectosomes

Cell membrane + ejectosomes = periplast

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52
Q

Bilobed chloroplast (+ who has it)

A
  • Cryptomonads

- One lobe of connected to another lobe to form the chloroplast

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53
Q

palmelloid arrangement

A
  • many algae enclosed in mucilage

- cryptomonads

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54
Q

Ejectosomes

A

-Little membrane bound structure from periplast that is ejected
-Are projectiles usually
of two types: large (20 μm when discharged) or small (4 μm when discharged)
-Long tapered ribbon, tightly spiralled and enclosed in single membrane
-Discharged explosively when cell is disturbed, like a party favour
-Thought to serve as defence or escape mechanism

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55
Q

Nucleomorph (+who has it)

A
  • intermediary between the chloroplast and nucleus, looks like a nucleus (what it may have been before), like vestigial nucleus but still some use for it
  • provides proof of secondary endosymbiosis, has remains of nucleus of the original cell that was engulfed
  • has chromosomes (3 pairs which code for the proteins of the chloroplast, NOT in nucleus but the information to make chloroplasts is found in the nucleomorph)
  • Cryptomonads
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56
Q

algal group with nucleomorph

A

cryptomonads

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57
Q

Pigment location in cryptomonads

A
    • intrathylakoid **

- pigments between thylakoids (not thylakoid surfaces as usual)

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58
Q

Auxotrophic

A

Mostly photolithotrophic but requires a nutrient that it can’t make itself

  • must be provided with organic matter
  • ex. require vitamin B12
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59
Q

Mixotrophic

A

Capable of either heterotrophy or autotrophy based on whichever is most favourable.

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60
Q

Chloroplast morphology and number of membranes in cryptomonads

A
  • 􏰁 Single, bi-lobed chloroplast with central pyrenoid
  • 􏰁 Four membranes (result of secondary endosymbiosis of photosynthetic, red algal cell – nucleomorph between inner and outer membranes of chloroplast is remnant of its nucleus)
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61
Q

thylakoid numbers and pigments (type and location) in cryptomonads

A
  • 􏰁 Thylakoids in pairs, sometimes in threes
  • 􏰁 Chlorophylls A and C
  • Phycobilins in intra-thylakoid spaces not on surface
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62
Q

Storage product in cryptomonads

A

true starch

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63
Q

Heterotrophy (both autotrophy and mixotrophy) in cryptomonads

A

-􏰁 Some taxa are auxotrophic, requiring such organics as
vitamin B12 to achieve maximum growth rate
-􏰁 Many taxa are mixotrophic, capable of phagotrophy of bacteria and other small cells

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64
Q

Asexual reproduction in cryptomonads

A

-􏰁 Mostly asexual via mitosis and cytokinesis
-􏰁 Some species produce cysts or palmelloid stages to
withstand adverse conditions or deter grazers
-􏰁 Sexual reproduction is rare

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65
Q

Sexual reproduction in cryptomonads

A

-􏰁 Sexual reproduction is rare:
􏰁 Isogamous with vegetative cells acting as gametes
-􏰁 Gametes fuse to form quadriflagellate zygote which divides by meiosis to form haploid vegetative cells
-􏰁 Haplontic lifecycle

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66
Q

Kleptoplastidity (+which group)

A
  • “to steal plastids”
  • cryptomonad chloroplasts ingested by ciliates and dinoflagellates remain functional, producing starch, for several days
  • Cryptomonads
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67
Q

Would you find cryptomonads in high or low nutrient waters?

A

cryptomonads sometimes common where organic matter content is high (probably due to facultative phagotrophy)

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68
Q

Phytoplankton

A

Free-floating

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69
Q

How do some algae withstand adverse conditions or deter grazers?

A

Produce cysts and palmelloid stages

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70
Q

Dinoflagellates

A

Dino = whirling flagellates or corkscrew due to their means of motility

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71
Q

Heterodynamic + example

A

Two flagellae that don’t move one the same direction (ex. dinoflagellates)

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72
Q

1st and 2nd most important algal groups in terms of primary productivity

A
  • Diatoms first

- Dinophyta second

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73
Q

Theca

A
  • Modified cell membrane
  • “Covering” or “coat”
  • In Dinoflagellates, have thecal plates under the membrane, NOT armour - the cell membrane is over top!
  • Function of the theca may help with floatation and surface area
  • Fewer the number of plates, the thicker and more robust they are (varies with species)
  • Plates are joined by sutures
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74
Q

Cell wall/membrane of dinoflagellates

A

-Modified plasma membrane with fibrous cellulosic plates beneath plasma membrane, the theca

-“Covering” or “coat”
-In Dinoflagellates, have thecal plates under the membrane, NOT armour - the cell membrane is over top!
-Function of the theca may help with floatation and surface area
-Fewer the number of plates, the thicker and more robust they are (varies with species)
-Plates are joined by sutures
- Number of thecal plates varies with species (thicker the
plates, fewer per cell)
-􏰁 Some taxa have vesicles devoid or almost devoid of contents (appear naked or non-thecate)
-􏰁 Microtubules located below vesicles, randomly distributed or in discrete groups

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75
Q

Sutures

A

join plates of dinoflagellate theca

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76
Q

Mesokaryotic nucleus + who has it

A
  • “Middle nucleus”
  • Intermediate stage between prokaryotes and eukaryotes
  • Doesn’t expand its chromosomes during interphase, remain condensed (+visible) through the entire cell cycle and are rod-shaped
  • No histone proteins in chromosomes
  • Can have constant DNA replication
  • Nuclear membrane persists
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77
Q

Nucleus of dinoflagellates

A
  • mesokaryotic
  • “Middle nucleus”
  • Intermediate stage between prokaryotes and eukaryotes
  • Doesn’t expand its chromosomes during interphase, remain condensed (+visible) through the entire cell cycle and are rod-shaped
  • No histone proteins in chromosomes
  • Can have constant DNA replication
  • Nuclear membrane persists
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78
Q

Trichocyst + who has it

A
  • In Dinoflagellates
  • Membrane-bound crystalline rod (penetrates into cell)
  • A projectile organelle to deter predators (similar to discobolocytes or ejectosomes) or to escape
  • At the suture lines (junction point of plates)
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79
Q

Cingulum and Sulcus, how they contribute to motility, and who has it

A

Cingulum (wraps around the cell) and sulcus (runs down the cell in one direction) each have a flagellum

  • Heterodynamic flagella
  • In dinoflagellates
  • Sulcus one (larger) propels organism forward
  • Smaller one in cingulum causes a barrel role –> corkscrew motion through water
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80
Q

What is a clue of an algae’s evolution?

A

what pigments they contain

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81
Q

Haplontic lifecycle

A

most of the lifecycle is haploid except for the zygote stage which is diploid

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82
Q

Phagotrophic

A

Solid particles ingested into food vesicles where they are broken down and absorbed into cytoplasm

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83
Q

Heterotrophic

A

need organic material, can’t synthesize themselves

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84
Q

** exam

Pantonematic vs Acronematic

A

Pantonematic: tinsel or hairy flagellum
Acronematic: smooth or whiplash flagellum

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85
Q

Epicone vs Hypocone

A

the theca of dinoflagellates-

Epicone: Top part above + including the cingulum but not sulcus

Hypocone: Bottom part, with sulcus

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86
Q

Apical vs Singular plates

A

the theca of dinoflagellates-

Apical plates = at top of epicone

Singular plates = along the Cingulum

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87
Q

In dinoflagellates, which flagella is tinsel/ pantonematic and which is whiplash/ acronematic?

A

Pantonematic: tinsel or hairy flagellum - girdle/cingulum flagella
Acronematic: smooth or whiplash flagellum - sulcus flagella

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88
Q

____ join plates of dinoflagellate theca

A

sutures

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89
Q

function of horns in dinoflagellates

A

increases SA for buoyancy, not for protection at all

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90
Q

Describe the four types of eyespots.

A
  1. Simplest type: collection of lipid globules lying freely in cytoplasm (no membrane)
  2. Row of small globules within chloroplast
  3. Two rows of lipid globules surrounded by triple membrane in cell periphery
  4. Most complex eye or ocellus (lens and pigment cup); Lens acts as a focusing device
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91
Q

Eyespot of dinoflagellates

A
  • 􏰁 Found in <5% of species
  • 􏰁 Most complex among algae:

Most complex eye or ocellus (lens and pigment cup); Lens acts as a focusing device

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92
Q

Chloroplasts in dinoflagellates

A
  • Only in ~ 50% of taxa; rest are heterotrophic and lack chloroplasts
  • Discoid or lobed
  • Peripheral location
  • Variable number
  • Unique chloroplasts (three membranes, different accessory pigments)
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93
Q

Thylakoids and pyrenoids in dinoflagellates

A
  • Thylakoids stacked in three

- 􏰁 Pyrenoid can be embedded in chloroplast or protruded into cytoplasm (in about 50% of dinoflagellates)

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94
Q

storage product in dinoflagellates

A

Storage product: starch or lipid droplets (long term storage)

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95
Q

Photosynthetic pigments in photolithographic members of dinoflagellates

A
  • 􏰁Chlorophyll A and C
  • B-carotene, fucoxanthin, peridinin (unique to dinophyta), dinoxanthin

Most appear golden-brown or red due , to accessory
pigments that mask chlorophylls

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96
Q

Do all dinoflagellates have chloroplasts?

A
  • 50% heterotrophic :
  • Phagotropic (Solid particles ingested into food vesicles where they are broken down and absorbed into cytoplasm.
    􏰁 Prey on other dinoflagellates, other algae, large ciliates, nematodes, larvae, and fish).

50% not:

  • auxotrophic (require B12)
  • mixotrophic

only 50% have chloroplasts

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97
Q

Asexual reproduction (2) in dinoflagellates

A
  • Mostly asexual reproduction via mitosis
  • 􏰁 Each daughter cell usually receives some parental plates
  • Cyst formation by replacement of theca with thin, amorphous sporopollenin-like wall that thickens
  • Function unknown but thought to be ** part of lifecycle *** and not a way to survive adversity
    -􏰁 Forms inside the theca, after which cytoplasm migrates
    inside through pore in cyst wall then original plasma
    membrane and theca are shed
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98
Q

Are dinophyta haploid, diploid, or diplohaploid?

A

haploid

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99
Q

Mechanism of cyst formation in dinophyta

A
  • Cyst formation by replacement of theca with thin, amorphous sporopollenin-like wall that thickens
  • Function unknown but thought to be ** part of lifecycle *** and not a way to survive adversity
    -􏰁 Forms inside the theca, after which cytoplasm migrates
    inside through pore in cyst wall then original plasma
    membrane and theca are shed
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100
Q

Function of dinophyta cysts

A

Function unknown but thought to be ** part of lifecycle *** and not a way to survive adversity

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101
Q

Peridinin

A
  • only algal group that contains this unique xanthophyll pigment are the Dinoflagellates
  • an accessory pigment
  • gives them a colour other than green
  • a modified phycoerithrin
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102
Q

Why are cysts sometimes produced?

A

-for adverse environmental conditions like low food quantities (live in sediment for a long time)

or

may also just be a normal part of the lifecycle for dinophyta (amoeboid stage and become saprophytic, eating organic matter in the sediments)

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103
Q

Sporopollenin

A
  • in dinophyta
  • thin and amorphous wall that thickens during cyst formation (replaces theca of dinoflagellates)
  • material produced by spores
  • extremely robust
  • in pollen that has survived thousands of years
  • are armored due to outer layer
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104
Q

Sporopollenin

A
  • in dinophyta
  • thin and amorphous wall that thickens during cyst formation (replaces theca of dinoflagellates)
  • material produced by spores
  • extremely robust
  • makes up outside coat of pollen that has survived thousands of years
  • are armored due to outer layer
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105
Q

Planozygote vs Hypnozygote

A
  • In dinophyta
  • Planozygote: flagellated zygote
  • Hypnozygote: non-flagellated zygote (resting cyst), dormant stage
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106
Q

Anisogamous gametes

A

ex. dinoflagellates

female larger, male smaller

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107
Q

Sexual reproduction in dinoflagellates

A
  • 􏰁 Two cells serve as isogametes or anisogametes
    (look like vegetative cells except smaller and lighter colour)
    -􏰁 Larger (female) gamete absorbs the smaller (male) gamete to produce diploid zygote
  • ->􏰁 Planozygote – flagellated zygote
  • -> 􏰁 Hypnozygote – nonflagellated zygotes (resting cysts)

􏰁 Zygote divides meiotically to produce four naked protoplasts, which eventually develop plates to become four dinoflagellates

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108
Q

Fast algae and how fast are they?

A

dinoflagellates

speeds up to 500 um/sec=1.8m/h

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109
Q

Do dinoflagellates migrate?

A

Daily vertical migrations, moving up by day for light, down by night for nutrients

  • Diurnal rhythm
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110
Q

algae with diurnal rhythm

A

dinoflagellates (Daily vertical migrations, moving up by day for light, down by night for nutrients)

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111
Q

Saprophytic + which group

A

organisms that live off dead organisms, dead organic matter

- dinoflagellates

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112
Q

____ are parasitic on annelids, copepods and fish

A

dinoflagellates

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113
Q

Ichthyotoxin

A

-toxin produced by a dinoflagellate that targets fish

  • dinoflagellate swarm attracted by chemicals released by fish prey
    = dinoflagellates secrete ichthotoxin that promotes epidermal sloughing
  • fish had necropsy of their tissue (breaking down) and killed them, they eat the dead fish (saprophytic)
  • if they kill all the fish and have no food, they can encyst, survive on other prey, or become a motile amoebae form and bloom again when food is replenished
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114
Q

Ichthyotoxin vs ichthiopathic

A

Ichthyotoxin = chemical toxic to fish, produced by a dinoflagellate

Ichthiopathic = fish killer

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115
Q

Endozoic

A

Living inside another organism (can be a symbiotic association), example is dinoflagellates that live in corals

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116
Q

How is a symbiosis formed between the corals and the dinoflagellates?

A

○ In corals, alga provides coral with oxygen, waste removal and carbohydrates, since about 60% of the carbon fixed by the alga is released into the surrounding medium and used by coral
○ Dinoflagellates help on the calcification of the matrix of corals (Calcium carbonate deposited due to algal photosynthesis assists in coral calcification; since this only occurs in light, restricts depth to which corals can occur)
○ That’s why they live in shallow water to receive light for the dinoflagellates that help them with the calcification
○Dinoflagellates get the nutrients from the surrounding host, and are also protected

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117
Q

Calcium carbonate

A

in dinoflagellate and coral symbiosis, the calcium carbonate (lime stone) deposited due to algal photosynthesis assists in coral calcification; since this only occurs in light, restricts depth to which corals can occur

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118
Q

Marl

A

photosynthetically produced limestone (ex. by dinoflagellates)

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119
Q

Red tides

A

“Red tides” mostly in tropical and subtropical waters
but also in temperate zones, usually close to coasts

○ Caused by Dinoflagellates
○ Blooms occasionally lead to death of aquatic animals when they consume oxygen during collapse or due to toxin production
○ Upside: it is thought oceanic dinoflagellate blooms produced much of the world’s petroleum deposits
○ Water turning to blood in the Bible due to these red tides, not an act of God

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120
Q

Why do some dinoflagellates produce a bioluminescent response?

A

○ Bioluminescent response where luciferin a chemical that produces light (flames from hell) and reacts with ATP = luciferase (an enzyme that mediates the reaction between ATP and luciferin)
○ Chemicals mix when propeller of the boat passes through or reaction to being startled (fish are attracted the the predator eating the dinoflagellate and eats them instead)
○Alarm to startle the burglar (burglar alarm hypothesis) and attract your neighbours or startle the grazers (startle hypothesis)

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121
Q

luciferin

A

a chemical that produces light (flames from hell) and reacts with ATP = luciferase (an enzyme that mediates the reaction between ATP and luciferin)

produced by dinoflagellates

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122
Q

burglar alarm hypothesis vs startle hypothesis

A

Dianoflagellates produce bioluminescence using luciferin.

Possible reason they do it:
Alarm to startle the burglar (burglar alarm hypothesis) and attract your neighbours or startle the grazers (startle hypothesis)

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123
Q

Saxitoxin

A
  • Dinoflagellate endotoxin
  • 50 times more potent than curare to birds and mammals but nontoxic to shellfish that are its primary consumer
  • function unknown, but may be anti-predator mechanism (does not benefit the individual that has been eaten but may benefit the others that may survive)
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124
Q

Endotoxin

A

produced within cell and not released to environment until cell is crushed or destroyed

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125
Q

Neurotoxin

A

toxin that affects the nervous system

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126
Q

Flagella of euglenids

A
  • 1 or occasionally 2 (sometimes more) heterokontous flagella arising from anterior invagination (gullet)
  • Unique anatomy with usual 9+2 ultrastructure plus rigid paraflagellar rod

Paraflagellar rod:

  • electron dense area
  • rigid
  • gives the flagella a unique movement (because its rigid)
  • found in Euglenophyta
  • more jerky movement, less flexible
  • Euglnoid motion
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127
Q

Paraflagellar rod

A
  • electron dense area
  • rigid
  • gives the flagella a unique movement
  • found in Euglenophyta
  • more jerky movement, less flexible
  • Euglnoid motion
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128
Q

Euglenid eyespot and light response

A
  • Prominent, red-coloured eyespot near basal flagellar swelling associated with longer of two flagella
  • Euglenoid are positively phototactic at low light, negatively phototactic at high light (When high levels of light that could damage the photosystems)
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129
Q

Euglenoid motion

A

-twisting of the pellicle to propel the cell forward (streaming of cytoplasmic contents)

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130
Q

Pellicle

A

○ Proteinaceous strips beneath plasma membrane
○ Helically twisted with ridges and grooves
○ Some have flexible pellicle to allow for Euglenoid motion (others have a rigid pellicle)
○ Muciferous bodies with mucilage under pellicle strips
○ Discharge mucilage to exterior

  • Some euglenids covered in dehydrated mucilage resembling a lorica, sometimes with Fe/Mn giving it red/brown colour
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131
Q

Nucleus type in dinoflagellates and euglenoids

A

mesokaryotic

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132
Q

Muciferous bodies in euglenoids

A

-excrete mucilage to lubricate the membrane or pellicle when it twists = Euglenoid motion

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133
Q

Photolithotrophic

A

use if light and inorganic material

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134
Q

Epipelon vs Epiphyton

A 
Epipelon = sediment
Epiphyton = plants
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135
Q

Bioassay (+ example)

A
  • Use of living creature to tell you the concentration/ quantity of something.
  • Egulena growth rate is used to determine the concentration of vitamin B12
136
Q

Nutrition in euglenids

A
  • None strictly photolithographic, probably all are auxotrophic.
  • 1/3 can photosynthesize, probably mixotrophic
137
Q

Chloroplast and number of chloroplast membranes in euglenids

A
  • 􏰁 Many chloroplasts per cell but about 2/3 of euglenoids are achlorophyllous and obligate heterotrophs
  • 􏰁 three chloroplast membranes (secondary endosymbiosis of a green alga)
138
Q

Pigments (+ accessory ones) and presence or absence of pyrenoids in euglenids

A
  • 􏰁 Pyrenoids may be present, located centrally
  • 􏰁 Chlorophylls A and B (no C), like Green Algae
  • Accessory pigments: β-carotene, neoxanthin, diadinoxanthin (most appear green, some red)
139
Q

every alga has the pigment _____

A

chlorophyll a

140
Q

Euglenid storage product

A
  • paramylon (or paramylum)
  • a storage product of Euglenophyta
  • chemically similar to laminarin
  • does not respond to iodine
141
Q

paramylon

A

euglenoid storage product, does not respond to iodine

142
Q

Endozoic (= example)

A

living inside animals like euglenids drangonfly nymphs

143
Q

Reproduction in euglenids (not mechanism)

A

-􏰁 Purely asexual or by encystment
-􏰁 No confirmed reports of sexuality
-􏰁 Encystment usually in response to adverse
environmental conditions (desiccation, high light, changing temperature)

144
Q

1 algal group encysts as part of their lifecycle, NOT in response to adversity

A

dinoflagellates

145
Q

Process of encystment in euglenids

A
  • Cells slow down, become rounded, lost flagella, secrete heavy mucilaginous crust
  • 􏰁 Cysts persist for months after which cell division occurs within mucilage before flagella reappear, forming palmelloid stage
  • 􏰁 Germinating cysts responsible for green growth in puddles
  • Cysts look red (high iron content) and the mucilage is extremely sticky.
  • Located on neuston (surface of water interface where water meets air), which likely indicates mixotrophy - nutrient rich, shallow waters
146
Q

neuston

A

surface of water interface where water meets air

147
Q

Euglenids can live in these habitats, define them.

Epipelon
Epiphyton
Epizoon

A

sediment (epipelon)
plants (epiphyton)
zooplankton (epizoon)

148
Q

Are red algae unicellular or multicellular?

A

Mostly multicellular: pseudoparenchymatous or filamentous; very few unicellular

  • have specialized cells; reproductive, storage, photosynthetic, body, attachment, etc
149
Q

2 algal groups that are never flagellated

A 
red algae (rhodophyta)
cyanophyta
150
Q

Pigments in red algae (rhodophyta)

A

Chlorophylls A and D, carotenoids and phycobilins in phycobilosomes

phycobilosomes - pigments are exterior to thylakoids

From another slide:
 Chlorophylls A and D with various carotenoids
 Phycobilins in phycobilisomes on surface of thylakoids, similar to Cyanophyta:
 Allophycocyanin
 Phycocyanin
 Phycoerythrin (predominant; gives red colour)
 Freshwater species often blue-green due to predominance of phycocyanin

151
Q

storage products in red algae (rhodophyta)

A

Storage product: Floridean starch (iodine
responsive)

Principal storage is Floridean starch (α-1,4- linked glucan, similar to true starch, more highly branched) as granules outside chloroplast, in cytoplasm (unlike green algae)

152
Q

thylakoids (number and stacked or not stacked) in red algae (rhodophyta)

A

Thylakoids single, equidistant, and unstacked in chloroplasts, similar to cyanobacteria

unlike any other eukaryotic algae except Glaucophyta

153
Q

flagella in red algae (rhodophyta)

A

NONE, ever. No motile stages at all.

154
Q

Pseudoparenchymatous

A

3D tissue unable to identify a single filament

155
Q

Pit plugs

A
  • in red algae (rhodophyta)
  • Proteinaceous pit plugs between adjacent cells in
    many species (connections between cells)
  • like higher plants
    -not a pit or connection
  • plug is deposited by endoplasmic reticulum

primary and secondary pit plugs function -

primary: allows for transport between cells until plugged

secondary:
- function in intercellular transport (when plugs are dislodged), can be parasitic

156
Q

Primary pit connection vs Secondary pit connection in red algae

A
  1. Primary pit connection:
    - when one cell divides it forms between the two cells (sister cells)
    - gap left behind by incomplete division and ER condenses in gap forming plug
  2. Secondary pit connection:
    - Formed when two cells fuse (non-sister cells) because cell walls are soft
    - May also be between 2 different organisms or even different species - parasitic, cell bonds to wall, dissolves the wall and connects itself so it can use the organism for transport, etc
    - function in intercellular transport (when plugs are dislodged)
157
Q

Cell wall of red algae (rhodophyta)

A

○ Fibrous portion of cellulose provides strength
○ Cellulose rather soft, not rigid, compared to other algae
○ Embedded in amorphous matrix of mucilage (agars and carrageenans) that is 70% of dry weight

158
Q

Cell wall of red algae vs brown algae

A

○ Brown algae have rigid walls (two layers of cellulose, fibrillation network and an outer layer of alginate that allows the ability to resist drying out)

○Red algae live in same environments but adapted same strategy to survive dry environments, have cellulose, agar and carrageenan (chemicals formed by red algae that have similar roles as the alginate, also used in cosmetics, can hold lots of water); walls are must less rigid, so smaller due to less rigidity

159
Q

Primary endosymbiosis vs Secondary endosymbiosis

in terms of number of chloroplast membranes

A 
Primary = 2 membranes of chloroplast
Secondary = 3 or 4 membranes of chloroplast
160
Q

Average water consumption in Israel and Manitoba (same) in LCD (= laters per capita per day), for all uses and personal uses.

A
  • All uses: 506 LCD

- Personal: 275-325

161
Q

Proportion of water recycled in Israel

A

75% (MB recycles less than 1%)

162
Q

describe the 2 options for meeting future water demand (hard path vs soft path)

A

“Hard path”
- Find new sources to meet increased demand

“Soft path”
- Conserve (use more efficiently) to avoid need for new sources

163
Q

Why conserve water ?

Every liter of water conserved means ____ and ____.

A
  • One liter of clean water available for
    other purposes
  • One liter of gray water not requiring treatment
164
Q

Anti-environmentalism

A

the gradual adoption of unconscious behavior founded in ignorance of, and disdain for, the natural environment, usually acquired with egoism, consumerism, and self-indulgence

165
Q

United Nations: ___ LCD is minimum amount required to satisfy basic human needs

A

United Nations: 20 LCD is minimum amount required to satisfy basic human needs

166
Q

chloroplasts of red algae (number of them, shape, number of membranes and what this means, presence of chloroplast ER (yes or no)?

A

Surrounded by two membranes of envelope with no chloroplast ER, probably resulting from primary endosymbiosis of cyanobacterium

167
Q

What is the purpose of phycobilins in red algae?

A
  • phycobilins allow for chromatic adaption of red algae
  • they can grow at greater depths than other algae because blue and green light penetrate farthest into water
  • chlorophyll A absorbs light at 400-500 and 600-700
  • phycocyanin absorbs at 500-600 (or 550 or so)
  • phycoerythrin absorbs at 450 to 600

together absorbs a huge spectrum which gives red algae an advantage in marine waters

168
Q

Phycobilins

A
  • allows for chromatic adaptation where photosynthetic organisms can modify them to adapt to the amount of light they are receiving
  • take up a wider range of wavelengths of light from the spectrum
  • allow for chromatic adaptation
169
Q

Chromatic adaptation and phycobilins

A
  • phycobilins allow for chromatic adaption of red algae

- they can grow at greater depths than other algae because blue and green light penetrate farthest into water

170
Q

Which visible light goes through water the easiest?

A
  • blue and green go through easiest (why the colour of water is blue)
  • red and green not as easily
171
Q

Nucleus of red algae

A

 Uninucleate
 Multinucleate (repeated mitosis without cytokinesis)
 Polyploidy (replication of genome without mitosis, mechanism against mutation of essential genes)

172
Q

Nucleus, and ploidy of red algae

A

 Uninucleate or Multinucleate (repeated mitosis without cytokinesis)
 Polyploidy (replication of genome without mitosis, mechanism against mutation of essential genes)

173
Q

How do you get a multinucleate organism?

A

repeated mitosis without cytokinesis

174
Q

Adelphoparasites vs Alloparasites

A

Adelphoparasites: closely related to hosts (90%)
Alloparasites: not closely related to hosts

175
Q

How do parasites (red algae) connect to hosts?

A
  • via secondary pit connections, transferring its nucleus to host, causing host cell to enlarge and increase in cytoplasmic content
  • products of photosynthesis are transferred from host to parasite
176
Q

Oogamous

A

two very different gametes

177
Q

Monoecious

A

both male and female structures are on the same gametophyte

178
Q

Why triphasic reproduction? Who has this?

A
  • triphasic lifecycle (three phases) with isomorphic or heteromorphoic haplodiplontic alternation of generations
  • because male gametes are nonmotile, it is compensation for lack of motility
  • enhance reproductive fecundity
  • In red algae
179
Q

Describe asexual reproduction in red algae

A

Asexual reproduction involves formation of nonflagellated monospores (via mitosis in monosporangia) on gametophyte and tetrasporophyte

180
Q

Describe sexual reproduction in red algae

A
  • triphasic lifecycle (three phases) with isomorphic or heteromorphoic haplodiplontic alternation of generations
  • because male gametes are nonmotile, it is compensation for lack of motility
  • Oogamous (male and female non-flagellated)
181
Q

Colony

A

loose aggregations of cells held together by mucilage or intercellular connections

182
Q

Coenobium

A

a type of colony where the number of cells is fixed

183
Q

Parietal chloroplast

A

around the cell

184
Q

Karyokinesis vs cytokinesis

A
  • karyokinesis = division of nucleus

- cytokinesis = division of cytoplasm

185
Q

How is chlorophyll an indicator?

A

High chlorophyl levels can indicate high algae levels

186
Q

Describe the gametophyte (N) stage in the triphasic lifecycle of red algae.

A
  1. Gametophyte (N)
    􏰀 Free-living; monoecious or dioecious
    􏰀 Male gametophyte produces spermatia (male gametes) from spermatangia via mitosis
    􏰀 Spermatia move passively in water currents to female gametophyte
    􏰀 Female gametophyte tip contains carpogonium (oogonium)
    􏰀 Fertilization occurs when spermatia land on trichogyne of carpogonium, producing carposporophyte
187
Q

Describe the carposporophyte (2N) stage in the triphasic lifecycle of red algae.

A
  1. Carposporophyte (2N)
    􏰀 Not free-living, associated with female gametophyte
    􏰀 Fertilized carpogonium produces zygote
    􏰀 Zygote becomes carposporophyte (gonimoblast
    filaments)
    􏰀 Carposporophyte produces 2N carpospores via mitosis in carposporangium
    􏰀 Carpospores produce the tetrasporophyte
188
Q

Describe the tetrasporophyte (2N) stage in the triphasic lifecycle of red algae.

A
  1. Tetrasporophyte (2N)
    􏰀 Free-living
    􏰀 Carpospores germinate to form tetrasporophyte
    􏰀 Tetrasporophyte produces N tetraspores via meiosis in
    tetrasporangium
    􏰀 Tetraspores germinate to form gametophyte
189
Q

gametophyte vs carposporophyte vs tetrasporophyte

A

Gametophyte (N): free-living, male produces spermatia, female gametophyte tip contains carpogonium - combine to produce carposporophyte.

Carposporophyte (2N): Not free living, associated with female gametophyte. Carposporophyte produces 2N carpospores via mitosis in carposporangium, and the carpospores produce the tetrasporophyte.

Tetrasporophyte (2N): Freelving, results from germinated carpospores. The tetrasporophyte produces N tetraspores via meiosis in the tetra sporangium, which germinate to form gametophyte.

190
Q

Why do red algae have a triphasic lifecycle?

A
  • 􏰀 Because male gametes are nonmotile, triphasism is compensation for lack of motility, serving to enhance reproductive fecundity
  • 􏰀 Carposporophyte and tetrasporophyte amplify fertilization events – one zygote nucleus can potentially produce billions of gametophytes
  • 􏰀 Carpospore production increases number of tetrasporophytes produced
  • 􏰀 Zygote is protected and nourished by gametophyte which increases its chances of successful germination and carpospores formation
191
Q

How are red algae similar to fungi?

A
  • 􏰀 Similar to Ascomycotina = “sac fungi”
    -􏰀 Nonmotile spermatia and the trichogynes occur in
    Ascomycetes and many red algae
    -􏰀 Resemblance between diploid carposporophyte of some Rhodophyta and the ascogenous hyphae of Ascomycetes
    -􏰀 Thickening occurs in cross-walls of red algae and Ascomycetes
    -􏰀 Several species of Rhodophyta have lost their pigmentation making them parasitic, like fungi
  • Possibly implies common ancestry
192
Q

___ algae are similar to ____ fungi.

A

Red algae are similar to ascomycete fungi.

193
Q

What is mucilage (from the cell wall with agar and carrageenan) used for?

A
  • Thickeners and stabilizers in food (ice cream, pudding)
  • Pharmaceuticals
  • Microbiological growth medium
194
Q

Socio-economic uses for red algae.

A
  • 􏰀 Widely used as food, often in aquaculture (bamboo sticks to trap floating spores) - ex. Nori
  • Mucilages (agar and carrageenan) used as thickeners and stabilizers in food, pharmaceuticals, and in microbial growth mediums
195
Q

Why is nori green?

A

Comes from red algae so has red pigment, but phycobilins are water soluble so the processing removes the red pigment (wash the algae).
Chlorophyll isn’t water soluble so it remains in the nori.

196
Q

Why are green algae green?

A

-relative absence of accessory pigments for chlorophyll colour are unmasked

197
Q

Endemic

A

things found only in specific locations

198
Q

Largest class of algae

A

Bacillariophyceae

199
Q

Main pigments in green algae

A

Principal pigments: chlorophylls A and B

Accessory pigments generally low in concentration, including β-carotene and lutein (xanthophyll), some others

200
Q

Name 2/3 algal groups with chlorophyll B

A
  • Euglenids
  • Green algae (chlorophyta)
  • Glaucophyta
201
Q

Number of chloroplast membranes in green algae and what this means. How many thylakoids, and are they stacked?

A

Chloroplast surrounded by two membranes, no chloroplast endoplasmic reticulum as in some “lower” groups
- Implies primary endosymbiosis

Thylakoids stacked in groups of 2-6.

202
Q

Storage product of green algae and where it’s stored/formed

A
  • starch is primary reserve, formed inside the chloroplast
203
Q

Flagella of green algae

A
  • Isokontous (same)
  • Whiplash / smooth / acronematic
  • Some fine hairs
204
Q

Cell walls of green algae

A

if existing, complete and made of cellulose, usually without outer gelatinous pectin layer.

  • may not have cellulose, variations:
  • Some have glycoprotein cell wall
  • Sometimes a lorica
  • Some deposit calcium carbonate on wall exterior
205
Q

What are the two types of cytokinesis?

A

1) phycoplast

2) phragmoplast

206
Q

Heterotrichous

A

Filamentous morphology, differentiated into erect and prostrate parts

207
Q

Siphonous/coenocytic

A

multiple nuclei in one cell

208
Q

Glycoproteins

A

mixture of carbohydrates and proteins, in green algae (order volvocales), doesn’t have cellulose in this case

209
Q

Phycoplast

A
  • “algae made”
  • more primitive (in simpler forms, chlorophycean line)
  • two daughter nuclei close together
  • after mitosis division, spindle fibres disappear and are replaced by more microtubules perpendicular to plane of division
  • new cell wall forms across microtubules by furrowing (ingrowth of cell membrane) or cell-plate formation (outward growth from centre)
210
Q

Phragmoplast

A
  • “wall made”
  • most advanced, found in higher green algae and more advanced plants (Charophycean line)
  • after mitosis division, two daughter nuclei held far apart by persistent spindle fibres perpendicular to plane of division
  • Golgi vesicles aggregate on spindle fibres and form new cell plate via furrowing or cell plate
211
Q

Eleutheroschisis

A

daughter cells synthesize their own cell wall (don’t use parent cell wall)

212
Q

Eleutheroschisis vs Desmoschisis

A

Eleutheroschisis: daughter cells synthesize their own cell wall (don’t use parent cell wall)

Desmoschisis: cell wall of daughter cells is in part composed of the parental wall (recycling of parental wall)

213
Q

Desmoschisis

A

cell wall of daughter cells is in part composed of the parental wall (recycling of parental wall)

214
Q

Cell wall of green algal order Volvocales

A

glycoprotein - mixture of carbohydrates and proteins, in green algae (order volvocales), doesn’t have cellulose in this case

  • some have lorica
  • but NO cellulose
215
Q

Eyespot (modification) in green algal order Volvocales

A

Some with eyespot INSIDE chloroplast and photoreceptor in plasma membrane above eyespot

216
Q

Which of these 2 cell division mechanisms is found in these orders of green algae?

  • Oedogoniales
  • Volvocales
  • Chaetophorales
  • Chlamydomonas
  • Chlorococcales

Eleutheroschisis or Desmoschisis

A

Eleutheroschisis:

  • Volvocales
  • Chlorococcales
  • Chlamydomonas

Desmoschisis:

  • Chaetophorales
  • Oedogoniales
217
Q

In the 1900s, what did Blackman hypothesize?

A

-hypothesized evolution of Volvocales was analogous to evolutionary progression in development of multicellular, terrestrial plants
○ Trends
- Increase in colony size and number of cells
- Change in morphology from flat plane to hollow sphere
- Increase in reproductive specialization
- Change from isogamous to oogamous sexual reproduction

218
Q

2 things found in high nutrient waters

A

nitrogen and phosphorous

219
Q

Which are the three most common algae in Manitoba?

A

Diatoms, Green Algae and Cyanobacteria

220
Q

Polarity

A

Anterior-posterior gradation in cell size, eyespots (larger in anterior), coordinated directional swimming and formation of specialized cells

  • Having distinct ends to cells
221
Q

Palmelloid stage (in green algae, order Volvocales)

A

-when motile forms lose their flagella during certain phases of the lifecycle

222
Q

Agglutination

A

In green algae, order Volvocales (ex. chlamydomonas)

  • cells clump together
  • Flagella used to ensure chemical compatibility, and if two cells are compatible, then the flagellae will agglutinate to bring the two vegetative cells together (make sexual reproduction easier)
223
Q

Agglutinins

A

gamete compatibility recognition

224
Q

Quadriflagellate planozygote

A

motile zygote with 4 flagellae, in sexual reproduction in chlamydomonas

225
Q

Photoheterotrophic

A

in green algae

  • use organic carbon only when light available and when limited by dissolved inorganic carbon supply
  • require light to photosynthesize but use organic carbon to break into inorganic form then use photosynthesis (don’t use carbon dioxide as their main source of carbon)
226
Q

Phototactic movement and the flagella

A
  • measures light at different time intervals as cell changes its position relative to light
  • photoreceptor of the eyespot contains chromophore (coloured substance)
227
Q

Pseudograna

A
  • pancake stacks of thylakoids with some interconnection between grana
  • resembles higher vascular plants
  • areas stacked in columns by partial overlap of thylakoids
228
Q

Conjugation

A
  • sexual reproduction

- tube forms between two filaments and the contents move from one cell into another, to form the zygote

229
Q

What is the role of sexual reproduction?

A
  • response to adverse conditions, not for genetic variability
  • allows to create specialized structures to reproduce
  • possibly part of life cycle for some alga
230
Q

When does a palmelloid stage usually develop?

A

If no water present, palmelloid stage develops; cells develop flagella when water returns

231
Q

hypnozygote

A

In sexual repro stage of chlamydomonas:

  • Gametes fuse at anterior ends, forming quadriflagellate planozygote
    􏰀** Flagella lost, cell contents condense and thick walls forms, forming dormant stage – hypnozygote*

􏰀 Under favourable conditions, hypnozygote germinates to form zoospores, released by wall breakdown

232
Q

Gonidium, gonidia

A
  • In green algae (order Volvocales)
  • Large mass of specialized cells in parent colony (sexual reproduction)
  • Produces daughter colonies by repeated mitosis within parental colony
  • only the gonidia reproduce
233
Q

Plakea

A
  • In green algae, order Volvocales
  • inverted colonies
  • Start off with flagella on the interior of the colony during both sexual and asexual reproduction, but a mechanism causes all the cells to invert so now flagellae or on the outside of the colony
234
Q

Motility in Order chloroccales (green algae) + adaptions

A
  • 􏰀 Vegetative cells nonmotile (no flagella and other structures associated with flagellated cells, such as eyespots and contractile vacuoles)
    -􏰀 Due to lack of motility, many genera modified to increase surface area and create drag (slow sinking):
    elongated shapes, spines, plate-like or stellate colonies, may cluster together
235
Q

Autocolony

A

a daughter colony formed within one of the cells of a colony and duplicating in the parent

  • Parental cell contents used up, but wall is not reused so the daughters stay in the empty cell for a while
236
Q

Lifecycle of green algae, order Volvocales

A

􏰀 Non-colonial biflagellate
􏰀 Haplontic lifecycle
􏰀 2-16 daughter cells (zoospores) produced via mitosis of
parent cell (parental flagella lost before division)
􏰀 Daughters form new cell wall while contained within parental cell (eleutheroschisis)
􏰀 If water present, enzymes break down parental wall and release daughters, which develop flagella and enlarge
􏰀 If no water present, palmelloid stage develops; cells develop flagella when water returns

237
Q

In the order Chlorococcales (green algae):

  • Cell wall composition
  • Eleutheroschisis or desmoschisis?
  • Motility
A
  • Cell wall mostly of cellulose (NOT glycoprotein)
  • Daughter cells synthesize their own cell wall (eleutheroschisis)
  • No motility
238
Q

In the order Chlorococcales (green algae):

  • Reproduction (very basic)
A

􏰀 Asexual via formation of coenobia (autocolonies)

􏰀 Sexual, rare, is isogamous with fusion of motile gametes

239
Q

In the order Chaetophorales (green algae):

  • Habitat
  • How many nuclei and chloroplasts?
A
  • 􏰀 Most freshwater, some terrestrial; none marine 􏰀

- Uninucleate cells with single, parietal, ring-like chloroplast

240
Q

In the order Chaetophorales (green algae):

  • Morphology
A
  • All multicellular filaments, occasionally parenchymatous
  • Some are heterotricfous, showing evolutionarily progression toward multicellular plants (eg. erect and basal filaments)
241
Q

In the order Chaetophorales (green algae):

  • Reproduction types and what happens to the daughters.
  • Eleutheroschisis or desmoschisis?
A
  • 􏰀 Daughter cells remain connected after division by plasmodesmata
  • 􏰀 Cell wall of daughter cell is, in part, composed of parental wall (desmoschisis)

􏰀 Asexual reproduction:

  • 􏰀 Filament fragmentation
  • 􏰀 Quadriflagellate zoospores that develop into new filament

-􏰀 Sexual reproduction poorly known

242
Q

In the order Oedogoniales (green algae):

  • Habitat
  • How many nuclei and chloroplasts?
  • Basic morphology
A
  • 􏰀 Freshwater, commonly epiphytic or epilithic, or
    planktonic
    -􏰀 Cells uninucleate with several parietal net-like (reticulate) chloroplasts with numerous pyrenoids
    -􏰀 All are multicellular filaments (branched or unbranched)
243
Q

Anisogamy

A

-during conjugation (sexual reproduction), one cell moves towards the other through the tube

244
Q

Due to lack of motility, flagella, eyespot and contractile vacuoles, how do algae slow down their sinking?

A

-increase surface area and drag with spines, elongated shapes, plate-like or stellate colonies, sculpting outside the cell gives it buoyancy

245
Q

Parthenogenesis

A

doesn’t involve the production of a zygote, the gamete forms an azygospore

246
Q

Reticulate

A

net-like shaped

247
Q

Stephanokont

A

ring or flagella near anterior end

248
Q

Nannadrous vs Macrandrous

A

nannadrous: dwarf male filaments (increases likelihood of successful reproduction), attached to oogonium mother (epiphytically)
macrandrous: large male filaments

249
Q

Circein

A
  • a pheromone named after the Greek Goddess that attracts men
  • attracts the androspore in green algae reproduction (O. Oedogonium)
  • no new genetic combinations!
  • enhance the likelihood of successful sexual reproduction
250
Q

Ring scars

A
  • in green algae reproduction (O. Oedogonium)
  • distinctive flared edges at ends of original wall where it split during cell division
  • Can count number of ring scars to find out how many times alga divided
251
Q

Why is the Oedogonium (green algae, order Oedogoniales) reproduction called the tent-top camper?

A
  • Cell wall ruptures and allows the cell to expand and recreates a new cell wall (expands and comes back down)
  • Scars remain from this cell division (asexual)
252
Q

Phycoplast vs Phragmoplast

A

Phycoplast: simpler algae’s microtubule structure during cell division (spindle breaks down)
Phragmoplast: in vascular plants, more advanced, involves microtubules during cell division (spindle persists)

253
Q

Isthmus

A
  • distinctive narrowing in the centre of the cell in desmids (constriction around the structure of the cell)
  • during asexual division, the cell divides across the isthmus, but starts to expand outwards to form another semi-cell
254
Q

Hormesis

A

what could be beneficial in one quantity, whereas not beneficial in another quantity (too much of a good thing is a bad thing)

Ex) too high temperature (and too low) is detrimental to algae growth)

255
Q

Epilimnion vs Hypolimnion vs Metalimnion

A

Epilimnion: live at the surface of the lake, well illuminated, those that are photosynthetic (autotrophs)
Hypolimnion: at the bottom of the lake
Metalimnion: intermediate layer, allows for both light and higher nutrient level, best of both worlds, facultative heterotroph found here due to capturing the dying algae that are sinking towards the bottom of the lake= Metalimnion Blooms

256
Q

Cercein

A

Pheromone produced by green algae, attracts male and only the presence of a male causes the female to produce an egg

257
Q

Androspore

A
  • Green algae reproduction stage (asexual)
  • Thick walled resting change, can stay in this form until conditions change
  • Germinates into thallus
258
Q

Chrystalline cellulose

A
  • some cell walls of green algae contains this
  • differs from cellulose in its 3D linkage
  • insoluble in water
  • resistant to chemicals
  • makes cell wall very robust
259
Q

Codiolum

A
  • Stage in green alga reproduction
  • Similar to vegetative cell but has thicker walls
  • Develops into a regular vegetative cell
260
Q

Function of the holdfast or basal cells or rhizoids

A

anchoring

261
Q

High nutrient water usually indicates what?

A

pollution

262
Q

Spermocarp envelope

A

-protective coat structure for the zygote on the vegetative cell

263
Q

Trichogyne

A

the long, colourless neck on the oogonium

264
Q

Reproduction/life cycle in green algae (ulvophycea)

A

􏰀 Haplontic lifecycle under climatic control
􏰀 All cells reproductive except basal one
􏰀 Thallus abundant at shorter day lengths (8-16 hrs) in shallow water along rocky shores of lakes in Canada and northern USA
􏰀 When water temperature reaches 10°C, thallus disappears as it converts massively into zoospores
􏰀 cells of filament act as sporangia and produce quadriflagellate zoospores which germinate into new filaments
􏰀 Asexual also by filament fragmentation

􏰀 Sexual under long day conditions (> 16 hours) with cells acting as gametangia and producing biflagellate isogametes (smaller than quadriflagellate zoospores)
􏰀 Gametes produced from different filaments
􏰀 Gamete fusion following by zygote production (planozygote) which undergoes resting stage or develops into 2N “codiolum stage”
􏰀 Zygotic meiosis releases N quadriflagellate zoospore or aplanospores
􏰀 Gametes positively phototactic; zygote negatively phototactic

265
Q

Desmids or “Desmos”

A

linked or in chains (two halves bonded together)

266
Q

Scalariform conjugation

A

-two seperate filaments form a sort of ladder and are connected by a conjugation tube (lateral line up)

267
Q

Papilla

A

Protrusion of the wall form a bump then extend outwards to create the conjugation tube to connect the contents of the two filaments

  • Conjugation canal formed by papillae between adjacent
    cells
268
Q

Placcoderm desmids vs Saccoderm desmids

A

Placoderm desmids: unicells constricted in middle to form two semi-cells with pores in cell wall for mucilage secretion (motile), has an isthmus
Saccoderm desmids: unicells not constricted into semicells, no pores in cell wall (nonmotile)

269
Q

Amoeboid gametes

A

Naked protoplasts

270
Q

Conjugation (distinct feature of green algae class Zygnematophyceae)

A

2 naked protoplasts (amoeboid gametes) fuse

* not gametes, no rigid cell wall

271
Q

Scalariform vs lateral conjugation

A

scalariform (two separate filaments)

lateral (between cells of same filament)

272
Q

How can an alga be isogamous vs anisogamous if it does conjugation as sexual reproduction?

A

In conjugation: protoplast from one cell moves through conjugation canal and fuses with other protoplast

  • male to immobile female by amoeboid motion = anisogamous (ex. spirogyra)
  • fusion occurs in conjugation tube between cells = isogamous (ex. cosmarium)
273
Q

Oligotrophic water

A

low nutrient water

274
Q

What is the common name of the Class Charophyceae?

A

stoneworts or skunkworts

275
Q

Pseudofilaments

A

individual cells get stuck together due to mucilage (creates buoyancy)

276
Q

Cosmarium asexual lifecycle (basic mechanism) - is it Eleutheroschisis or Desmoschisis?

A
  • 􏰀Cell division (mitosis, cytokinesis) at isthmus, resulting in two daughter cell, each inheriting one semi-cell from its parent, and generating one new semi-cell (desmoschisis)
  • No zoospores
277
Q

Sexual reproduction in Cosmarium

A

-􏰀 Haplontic, isogamous lifecycle similar to Order
- Zygnematales (conjugation)
- Cells pair in mucilage, aligned at right angles to each other
-􏰀 Cells split at isthmus with gametes moving out via amoeboid motion
-􏰀 Gamete fusion produces thick-walled zygote
-􏰀 Zygote germination produces 2N protoplast which
undergoes meiosis to produce four 4 cells
-􏰀 Each takes the form of normal desmid

278
Q

Where do most green algae live in?

A

nutrient rich environments

279
Q

Corrugations

A

small filaments on the exterior periphery of the filament in green alga class charophyceae

280
Q

What is on the exterior of the cell wall of Charophyceae (stoneworts)?

A

deposits of CaCO3 (calcium carbonate) called marl, created during photosynthesis

281
Q

Nucule vs Globule

A
  • reproductive structures
  • located at the axial
  • has a sheath of sterile cells (unique for algae) surround the globules produced at nodes on lateral branches
  • nucule=female
  • globule=male
282
Q

Endozoic

A

living inside animals

283
Q

What are the socio-economic uses of Chlorophyta?

A

○ Chlorella grown commercially in Asia as health food supplement
○ “Green Plant Juice Blend” Has Spirulina, Chlorella *
○ Dunaliella and Haematococus sources of carotene for food colouring and pharmaceuticals
○Enteromorpha and Ulva consumed in Pacific region
○ Primary production in freshwater and marine ecosystems
** ○ Useful for physiological studies pertinent to higher pants (ex-carbon fixation), similar metabolic pathways but easier to grow in lab
○Nuisance growth in high-nutrient environments

284
Q

What were the results of the Fort White Diatoms Frustule Count?

A
  • Lake today is becoming eutrophic=more diatoms
  • Double the amount of phosphorus today
  • High peak in chlorophyll today
  • Trend where two peaks of lots of diatoms
285
Q

Nuclei and chloroplasts in green algal class Charophyceae

A
  • Typically very large cells start uninucleate and become multinucleate (siphonocladous)
286
Q

Asexual reproduction in green algal class Charophyceae (method and also phycoplast or phragmoplast)?

A
  • 􏰅Mitosis with persistent telophase spindle (phragmoplast) with cell plate formation during cytokinesis
  • 􏰅 Cell division (mitosis, cytokinesis)
  • 􏰅 No zoospores
287
Q

Sexual reproduction in green algal class Charophyceae

A

-􏰅 Flagellated cells produced during sexual lifecycle (biflagellate sperm)

  • 􏰅 Haplontic, oogamous lifecycle
    -􏰅 Female oogonia (nucules) and male antheridia (globules)
    produced at nodes on lateral
    branches, surrounded by sheath of sterile cells (unique for algae)
    -􏰅 Each globule releases 1000s of spermatozoids (antherozoids)
    -􏰅 Each nucule produces 1 egg
  • Antherozoids swim to nuclei and one fuses with egg
  • Zygote forms thick wall and can remain dormant in sediment for long periods
    -􏰅 Germination involves meiosis, loss of 3 daughter nuclei, producing 1 new N thallus
288
Q

Name the factors in algal distribution and abundance.

A
  • Physical: Light, Temperature, Spatial Relations
  • Chemical: Nutrients
  • Biological: Herbivory, Allelopathy, Parasitism
289
Q

Measuring PAR (photosynthetically active radiation)

A
  • Secchi Disk Depth used to measure it
  • Photic zone roughly 3X Secchi depth
  • Invented by Italian astronomer Pietro Angelo Secchi, scientific advisor to the pope, in 1865 for water clarity measures
  • Deeper you lower the disc, note at what depth you can no longer see it
  • Light reflects off the disk
  • Can also measure using a light meter to get direct measurement of PAR
290
Q

Allelopathy

A

Chemicals produced by 1 plant is toxic to another plant

Chemicals from alga that negatively affects: 􏰀 Growth of another alga
􏰀 Its own growth (autotoxicity)
􏰀 Other microorganisms
􏰀 Higher plants

291
Q

How does water quality and quantity change with depth?

A
  • water absorbs light, so less at the bottom
  • most penetrative light is at the visible spectrum (which is used for photosynthesis)
  • plants are mostly protected from UV in water
  • huge loss of light with depth (virtually none by 10, 20m in most cases)
  • red algae can use infrared light so gives them an advantage
292
Q

If Secchi disk depth is 20cm, how deep can plants grow (max)?

A

60cm (it’s 3x secchi length)

293
Q

Plants can live up to __% PAR

A

1%

294
Q

PAR

A

Photosynthetically active radiation (part of visible spectrum algae can use for photosynthesis, 400-700nm)

295
Q

How Secchi disk depth is recorded

A
  • A metal disk painted black and white is lowered into water until you can’t see it, telling us that no more light is being reflected back for us to see
296
Q

World record for secchi depth

A

Crater lake, Oregon

  • Volcanic explosion created crater, very clear, bright blue water that gets a lot of incident light
  • secchi depth of 20-43.5 m (plants can grow up to 130m!!)
297
Q

Measuring PAR using flat or spherical sensors (mechanism)

A
  • Sphere: looks like a lightbulb, measures light coming from above, the sides, and below (reflection/scattered light)
  • Flat is the same but only measures light above.
298
Q

Incident vs diffuse light

A
  • Incident is light coming from the sun (like in Crater lake, Oregon), can use flat sensor to measure it.
  • Diffuse light is scattered off from sediment, algae, plants, animals, etc. and is common in murky lakes (like fort white), so would need to use a spherical sensor to measure it.
299
Q

Phytoplankton

A

suspended in water

300
Q

Periphyton

A

attached to surfaces

301
Q

What is the relationship between water and light and temperature?

A

Direct: Regulation of photosynthesis

Indirect:
Influence on thermal regime
-The more light, the warmer the water gets
- Lake stratification
- Warmest at surface because more light so less mixing
- Warm water decreases gas solubility (CO2, O2)
- Water circulation patterns with effects on nutrient cycling and distribution of chemicals → can be barrier to movement between cold and warm water
-􏰀 Phototaxis and other behavioural effects (alga with eyespot, can move closer to light if needs more or further away when it needs less)

302
Q

What is the relationship between solubility of O2 and CO2 vs temperature?

A
  • O2 and CO2 are inversely soluble vs temperature

* warm water holds less gases

303
Q

Importance of light : Direct Reasons

A
  • Regulation of photosynthesis

- More light = more photosynthesis

304
Q

Compensation point

A

Compensation point: where photosynthesis offsets respiration (=), where growth is 0, not enough light for photosynthesis, this point is not the same for all organisms

305
Q

Importance of light : Indirect

A
  • Influence of light on thermal regime (lake stratification)
  • Gas solubility
  • Metabolic rate
  • Water circulation patterns with effects on nutrient cycling and distribution of chemicals
  • Phototaxis and other behavioural effects
  • The warmer water gets, the faster the metabolism activity
  • Use of light with eyespot
306
Q

What is the relationship between growth rate and temperature in…

  • Suboptimal temp range:
  • Optimal range:
  • Inhibitory range:
A
  • Suboptimal temp range: +, increases growth
  • Optimal range: growth maximized (straight line on graph)
  • Inhibitory range: decreased growth
307
Q

Photic zone

A
  • lighted part of the water (sufficient light to allow for photosynthesis)
  • 3x the secchi disk depth
308
Q

Water column

A

vertical column from the surface of water all the way down

309
Q

Name some algal strategies to maximize light capture

*not critical

A
  • Alter position in water column (flagella, gas vacuoles)
  • Alteration of position and orientation of chloroplasts
  • Increase in surface area to volume ratio (spines)
  • Heterotrophy (if possible)
  • Chromatic adaptation (pigmentation)
  • Cyanobacteria are really good in high nutrient, high light waters due to having gas vacuoles enabling them to go up and down the water column
  • Parietal chloroplasts can maximize light capture compared to axial chloroplasts that aren’t as good
  • Low light algae have adapted to light deficiency (low Ik value), do this by altering their pigments (composition and quantity)
310
Q

Why is temperature important for algae : Direct

A
  • Regulation of metabolism and photosynthesis
  • Stimulus for sexual reproduction (too hot or too cold)
  • Affects algal buoyancy (max density at 4C)
311
Q

Why is temperature important for algae : Indirect

A
  • Affects water circulation patterns due to effects on density (stratification)
  • Affects solubility of gases, mixing of nutrients
312
Q

In a graph with temperature vs growth, where is inhibitory temperature range,suboptimal temperature range and optimal temperature range located on the graph?

A

suboptimal=upward sloping
optimal=peak that is constant
inhibitory=downward sloping

313
Q

Q10

A
  • Ratio comparing metabolic rate at one temperature with its rate at temperature 10 degrees Celsius
  • Q10 = (rate at temp+10 degrees Celsius) / rate at temp)
  • Often, Q10=2

**MR doubles with a 10C increase

314
Q

How does sedimentation negatively affect algae?

A
  • Most phytoplankton cells have density heavier than water (1g/mL)
  • So the algae sink
  • Sedimentation affects them negatively because it reduces light for photosynthesis
315
Q

How to deal with sedimentation: Water motion (LIST only, the 3 ways)

A

1) Wind-driven convection (Langmuir cells)
2) Seiches
3) Water column turnover

316
Q

Langmuir cells

A

=wind driven convection

  • caused by the wind where water starts to rotate, creates water motion (one “line” goes clockwise, other goes counterclockwise)
  • upwelling=algae pulled up to the surface
  • downwelling=algae pulled to the bottom

􏰀 Parallel windrows visible on water surface
􏰀 Spiral movement in direction of wind
􏰀 Minimum 11 km/h needed for formation
􏰀 Cells concentrated in upwelling zones between rotating water masses

317
Q

Seiches

A
  • “Wind tide”
  • Horizontal movement from upwind to downwind side of lake basin
  • H2O level randomly and rapidly changes with the wind
  • Vertical movement as epilimnion oscillates back and forth during and after wind activity
  • Causes vertical and horizontal mixing of water column
318
Q

Water column turnover

A
  • Raises non motile, sinking algae and may trigger algal blooms

(mixed twice a year in spring and fall, in spring when ice breaks up)
-Helps move algae up and down, like in the spring it is brought back up to the surface and begins to thrive

319
Q

How to deal with sedimentation : Small cell size

A
  • Sinking velocity inversely correlated with ratio of cell surface area to volume (S/V)
  • Cells with lower S/V sink faster
  • Smaller cells sink more slowly than larger ones
  • Filamentous or colonial organisms sink faster than unicells because they have less surface area with the same mass (***unless Colonies have less surface area and sink faster, so big spaces in the middle allows them to sink slower
  • Hydrodynamic drag: More surface area, the slower the rate of sinking
320
Q

Hydrodynamic drag

A

More surface area, the slower the rate of sinking

321
Q

How to deal with sedimentation : Reduce cell density

A
  • Store relatively light fats and lipids (don’t take up as much volume)
  • Store photosynthetic products and turn into something more compact gives it more density advantage (like lipids)
  • Mucilage can help prevent drying out, but also to sink more slowly since it’s mostly water, so it has same density as water (lightens the cell, so sinks more slowly)
  • Gas vacuoles only in Cyanobacteria allows for floatation, explains why there are blooms (has a competitive advantage)
322
Q

How to deal with sedimentation : Form resistance

A
  • Spines and horns help to prevent sinking

- Teardrop shapes sink more rapidly than spheres

323
Q

How to deal with sedimentation : Motility

A

Dinoflagellates are very fast!

324
Q

Since viscocity and density are inversely correlated to temperature, what is the conclusion to the sinking rate of algae?
*not critical

A

Sinking rate will increase with increasing temperature

325
Q

What are a periphyton’s spatial architecture?

A
  • Positive means of attachment
  • Mucilage used to attach to surfaces
  • Stalks can help take advantage of light and nutrients that are usually shaded by the bigger algae
  • Lights and nutrients diminish as you go down, so at the bottom usually mixotrophic
326
Q

Successional processes

A
  • Accumulation of biomass
  • Change in species composition resulting from competition for light, CO2, nutrients, attachment space, safety from grazing
  • occurs everywhere over time. Things will move in to colonize and then other species will go. Many alga grow upright (decreased competition for light and nutrients but then competition with other organisms at the top… it’s a trade off).
  • things get increasingly complex, driven by competition
327
Q

What is the equation for growth based on periphyton’s spatial architecture?

A 
G=I+R-M-E-C
G=growth
I=immigration
R=reproduction
M=Mortality
E=Emigration
C=Grazing
328
Q

What 2 things can you look at to see if an alga is a good nutrient competitor?

A

• Low KS or KQ – able to achieve high rate of growth at low concentration of the growth- limiting nutrient
• High μmax – able to achieve high rate of reproductive output
• So a “competitive index” is ratio of μmax to KS (Healy index); higher the value, better the
competitor

329
Q

Example of parasitism of algae by a fungi

A
  • Kitrid fungi produces zoospores that parasitize diatoms (preferentially Asterionella)
  • Colony numbers of alga related to density of fungus
  • infection is temp dependent, they like warmer water
330
Q

Why are algal blooms bad aesthetically? What 2 chemicals produced by cyanobacteria smell bad?

A

􏰀 Constituent species may produce chemicals that
impart taste or odour to water at ng/L levels (extremely low level)
Chemicals are probably secondary metabolites that serve no real role in metabolism, and may simply be waste products
􏰀 At least five chemicals responsible for taste and
odour problems, most common of which are
geosmin and methylisoborneol (MIB)

331
Q

Algal bloom problem: oxygen

A

􏰀 When blooms collapse, they decompose, removing oxygen from the water column, leading to fish death (summerkill)
􏰀 Decomposition may also occur in the winter, under
ice, leading to winterkill

332
Q

Algal bloom problem: toxins

A
  • ex. cyanobacteria, diatoms, dinoflagellates

􏰀 Dermal and oral uptake
􏰀 Typically low absorption in gastrointestinal tract
of humans and other mammals
􏰀 No known antidote or method of removal from
contaminated water
Mostly liver or nerve toxin
Sublethal symptoms include vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal cramps, headache, excessive bronchial secretions, difficulty breathing, loss of equilibrium, coma, permanent (irreversible) memory loss

333
Q

Why might Cyanobacteria have a competitive advantage in algal blooms?

A

􏰀 Oldest, most adaptable algal group on Earth
􏰀 Well adapted to high water temperatures and low light intensity occurring in summer blooms
􏰀 N fixation gives them advantage when N is low (but not all bloomers can
􏰀 Gas vacuoles provide buoyancy which keep them
suspended in well-lit, surface water
􏰀 Mucilage provides protection from grazing

􏰀 Climatic factors favouring cyanobacteria:
􏰀 Shallow mixing depth and greater turbulence
􏰀 Higher water temperature
􏰀 Longer water residence time (low water levels and lower discharge from lakes)
􏰀 Lower water viscosity at higher temperature favours species with ability to regulate buoyancy

334
Q

How do algae affect humans? (Why study algae - 5 reasons)

A 
 Atmospheric oxygen
 Nitrogen fixation
 Food
 Environmental indicators 
 Lake blooms
335
Q

Name 1 genera that commonly causes lake blooms.

A

 Common genera include Microcystis, Anabaena, Aphanizomenon, and others
 Occur when nutrient enrichment, especially N and P, favours excessive growth

336
Q

List the 4 general features of algae.

A
  1. No differentiation of parts.
  2. Vegetative reproduction is common.
  3. Unicellular reproductive structures.
  4. Zygote germination (if sexual) is not on parent cell.

1 - Algae (3 decks)

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