Gobbets 1950+ (Q4) Flashcards
Who was John Haynes Holmes?
White exponent of the Social Gospel and community churches
What did Haynes Holmes seek to build?
An accepting, all-encompassing religious community
What denomination was Haynes Holmes a Reverend of?
The Unitarian Church
What is the significance of the Unitarian Church?
It was an intellectual and interracial church
What are some of the unconventional beliefs of the Unitarian Church? (3)
Rejected Holy Trinity - believed God was one being
Rejected Jesus as an incarnate deity - believed he was inspired by God and still a saviour from sins
Rejected original sin, predestination, and infalibility of the Bible
Why did Haynes Holmes leave the Unitarian Church in 1918?
Because it required ministers to pledge support for American participation in the war (pacifist)
What is the historical significance of Haynes Holmes rejoining the Unitarian Church in 1960?
It was the year after the publication of his Autobiography - I Speak for Myself
What was Haynes Holmes also (intellectual)?
An author and a lecturer
What is Haynes Holmes affiliation to the NAACP?
He was a cofounder of the NAACP in 1909 alongside WEB Du Bois
Why did Haynes Holmes help to found the American Civil Liberties Union in 1920?
In response to the suppression of free speech in WWI
What controversial thing did Haynes Holmes support?
Eugenics
What was Ghandi’s influence on Haynes Holmes? (3)
Non-violence and non-cooperation
Publicised the works of Gandhi from his pulpit in the US
Describes his meetings and interactions with G in his book My Gandhi
What is the extract from Haynes Holmes biography discussing?
Community religion
What does Haynes Holmes call for?
A reform of religion and church to create a democratic Christianity based on freedom, acceptance, and social idealism
Who was Herman Talmadge?
A white Southern politician who served as both the Georgia Governor and Senator
What did Talmadge and other white southern segregationists in this period point to?
Perceived evidence of God’s wrath in response to miscegenation e.g. Tower of Babel, Destruction of Sodom and Gomorra, The Flood
What did Talmadge order rather than desegregating schools?
The closure of schools
What is You and Segregation in some ways a response to?
The Brown v Board decision - he was explicitly critical about this
When can we see a turning point in Talmadge’s political career?
In the 1970s he reached out to Black voters in a complete volte face
How did Talmadge attract Black voters in the 1970s?
bc of educational reforms among other policies
What did Talmadge say in his 1994 Oral History interview with Stephen Tuck?
Changed his opinions on segregation as he got older and wiser
Couldn’t describe any specific triggering events
Didn’t recognise a point when he noted the change
What is the significance of You and Segregation being published in 1955?
It was written for campaign purposes in the run-up to 1956 Senate elections
What is the historiographical significance of Talmadge being reelected in 1956?
Counter Chappell’s argument but support Dailey
How does Talmadge widely condemn desegregation in You and Segregation?
By employing historical, political and scientific and religious arguments to justify segregation
In the specific chapter of You and Segregation what does Talmadge use to oppose miscegenation?
Religious rhetoric
What does Talmadge argue miscegenation is in You and Segregation?
The direct result of desegregation
What does Talmadge argue intermingling does in You and Segregation?
damages purity of either race
What does Talmadge argue segregation is in line with in You and Segregation?
Natural law
What does Talmadge point to evidence of in the Bible in Y&S?
God’s wrath in response to miscegenation
Who was Mark Ethridge?
A white journalist who was one of the most respected figures in American journalism
What was Mark Ethridge’s A Call to the South (source)?
Initially a speech given to the Southern Association of Schools and Colleges
Later published in the Nieman Reports
What is the historical significance of the speech being given to Southern Association of Schools and Colleges?
Calling upon southern educators specifically to guide next gen towards “new attitudes” to grow “new leaders” - C-REF Darrow but Darrow speaking to AAs
Education the priority
What is the historical significance of A Call to the South being later published in the Nieman Reports?
Journal on journalism issues
Purpose to elevate and promote standards of US journalism
Why does Ethridge say the South is one of the poorest sections of the US? (3)
An “unahppy people”
Southern economic growth behind that of the North
South behind economically and losing political power bc integration driven people into introversion
What does Ethridge say the South needs to do?
get over the bitterness and embrace tolerance
What is Ethridge’s biggest criticism of the south for?
“Insularity” and “isolationism”
“A secession from reason” - C-REF Myrdal?
`What does Ethridge argue the South need to relinquish in order to change it’s predicament?
Dedication to agricultural production
General romanticisation of the past
Why does Ethridge say relinquishing these things will allow the South to deal with the “stark realities of the present”? (3)
South refused many helpful legislations due to long-standing bitterness over CW, Reconstruction, and subsequent North South relations
Worsened by desegrationist ruling in Supreme Court (Brown vs Board)
Whole host of CR leg being received poorly in the South
What does Ethridge encourage people of “good will” to do?
to continue upholding the evolving law and expanding freedom of all people
Quick fire facts about King! (5)
3rd generation Baptist Pastor 1954 - Pastor of Dexter Avenue Baptist Church 1957 - Elected President of SCLC Voting rights advocate Integrationist
Who influenced King?
Mays and Ghandi
What were King’s key criticisms of the Black baptist Church? (5)
Advocated a politically active/engaged ministry
Anti-religious emotionalism
Questioned physical bodily resurrection of Christ in his youth
Believed the church’s wealth was a distraction
Religion and white supremacy
Between 1957-68 how many miles did King travel and how many times did he speak publicly?
travelled 6 million miles and spoke publicly 2500+ times
Evidence of King’s international recognition?
1964 Times Man of the Year
Youngest AA man to receive Nobel Peace Prize
When does King break away from the NBC and establish the Progressive NBC?
1961
What is the significance of King being deeply influenced by agape?
Non-violence not a strategy, but a moral and religious conviction for King
How did the Montgomery Buss Boycott 1956 change King’s view?
Changed his view from non-violent persuasion to non-violent coercion
What did King changing his view from non-violent persuasion to non-violent coercion mean in practice?
From relying on moral aspects of non-violence to persuade whites, to forcing change through direct action demonstrations
How long had King held his former position on relying on moral aspects of non-violence to persuade whites?
Only held former position for 15 months pre-boycott
Who does Savage argue that King and his generation built upon the work of?
- An earlier group of southern black religious intellectuals
- Like Bethune, Burroughs, and Mays,
- ‘who combined a missionary impulse with a ministry founded on sacrifice and service, in education and in politics, both within and outside black religious institutions’
What does Best 2006 say the difference between Joseph Jackson and MLK’s approaches?
Jackson believed democratic Govt would eventually correct itself and so AAs would eventually achieve CR if all Americans unified around basic principles of Government
King tried to get people to live out these principles
What does Hitchmough 2011 say about King and Jackson’s differing methods/stances?
King/Jackson’s respective patriotism and relationship to America’s founding documents “transcends the simplistic conservative vs progressive label” often applied
Actually a philosophical/conceptual debate
What was Letter from Birmingham Jail a response to?
Response to “A Call for Unity”
Open letter
Published by local white clergymen
What did A Call for Unity say?
Criticism of MLK’s involvement in Birmingham campaign - called him an outsider
Argues fight vs social injustice should be in the courts not the streets
How was Letter from Birmingham Jail written?
On scraps of paper
Pieced together by members of movement
What does King do in Letter from Birmingham Jail?
Explaining his motivations
Justifies course of action being taken by CR demonstrators
Justified his involvement despite not being from Birmingham
Advocating non-violent direct action
Aiming to encourage those still demonstrating to continue
Highlighting hypocrisy of White Christians and White America
What is the historical context/significance of the Birmingham campaign?
Alabama police chief Bull Connor esp. Intolerant of CR protesters
Water hoses/police dogs on kids and adults
SCLC controversial decision to use children
What was the controversy surrounding publication of Letter from Birmingham Jail?
May 1963 extensive excerpts unconsensually published by NY Post Sunday Magazine
First published as Letter from Birmingham Jail June 1963 in leftist/pacifist/Xian mags
What was the impact of the Birmingham campaign? (4)
Bull Connor loses job
Widely publicised images of violence vs children
Forced desegration in Birmingham
Paved way for CR Act
What is Strength to Love?
Book of MLK’s Sermons adapted for written form
What is the significance of King’s disclaimer: “A sermon is NOT an essay to be read but a discourse to be heard” ? (3)
Certain impact lost with it being written down
MLK’s sermons tended to be sensationalised in order to stir crowd and achieve intended effect
Even as book went to press he was still worried force of his spoken words wouldn’t make the transition to the printed page
What are the key themes and messages of the sermons in Strength to Love? (4)
Importance of agape, unconditional love, going the extra mile to ensure well-being of others, avoiding retaliation as continues the cycle of hate and evil
Why does King argue in Strength to Love we need to move beyond retaliation?
to develop a strong mind and a tender heart
What is Strength to Love a concrete testament of and why?
MLK’s life-long commitment to preach the Social Gospel
It is a fusion of Christian teachings and social consciousness
What is the significance of the editors removing many familiar King phrases from Strength to Love?
More radical and critical messaging of MLK edited out of earlier sermons in Strength to Love, but in line with his views by Birmingham Jail - less millitant and more palatable to white audiences
What sort of things/themes were edited out of Strength to Love? (5)
Assessment of segregation as one of “the ugly practices” of America Anti-capitalist stance Calls for transformation Depiction of colonialism as evil Anti-war/anti-military sentiments
What is the significance of Strength to Love originally being proposed in 1957 to Head of Harper and Brothers religious books department ?
Arnold quoted in 1957 saying he hoped sermons would have a heavy emphasis on permanent religious values not topical events - EXPLICITLY MEANT TO BE A RELIGIOUS WORK AND NOT TOUCH ON SOCIAL ISSUES?
What was Strength to Love a mix of?
Mix of sermons worked on in jail and sermons that had become standard ones he preached
In jail for 15 days during Albany Movement (1961-62)
What were some new sermons drafted by King in Jail? (3)
Loving Your Enemies, Love in Action and Shattered Dreams
What were some standard King Sermons (2)?
Paul’s Letter to American Christians, What Is Man?
What was edited out of Transformed Non-Conformist (1953)?
First draft characterised early Church as anti-war - not in published sermon
Why was Strength to Love a landmark work? (3)
1st volume of sermons by an AA preacher widely available to a white audience
Cemented MLK’s identity as a compelling, well-educated and compassionate preacher
Prior most whites knew him only as a CR leader
Why was Mahalia Jackson known as the “Queen of Gospel”?
MJ a well-established, important and popular musician - 30 studio albums
What is the historical significance of Mahalia Jackson being a gospel singer?
Gospel music increased in popularity in 1960s with rise of radio
What is the significance of Mahalia Jackson’s highly religious upbringing as the daughter of a Baptist minister? (5)
Her writing couched in religious rhetoric
Believed Gospel music inspired courage in people
Made a conscious effort to link musical displays and religion
Lifelong refusal to participate in secular music esp. rising alternative to gospel, Blues
Turned down high-paying opportunities to focus on gospel
Why was Mahalia Jackson told by her singing teacher her style of singing was “not a credit to the Negro race”?
Bc lively and rhythmic
What is the historiographical significance of Mahalia Jackson being chosen to sing at the Montgomery bus boycott and the March on Washington?
Her is the only woman’s voice hear at all during the March on Washington
How did Mahalia Jackson defend spiritual and gospel music? (2)
By situating it within activism and demonstrating strong role freedom songs played in fight for freedom in the South
What did Mahalia Jackson desire to do through music?
Lift people
What does Mahalia Jackson’s form of uplift being different from figures like MLK and Malcolm X suggest?
She didn’t have access to those same methods
What is the historical context within which Mahalia Jackson was using music as a means of inspiring courage at a time when method had lost traction throughout century?
Excessive emotionalism in Black Church’s, including spirituals, criticised by ministers and AAs for fostering a culture of dissemblance
What was the distaste of emotionalism in Black Church’s rooted in?
Distaste rooted in fear of white society viewing them as unsophisticated/unable to move past their African heritage, and that this would prohibit racial uplift - c-ref Weisenfeld?
How was Mahalia a proponent for non-violence?
Her singing places emphasis on non-violent element of CR doctrine
Music, words, and prayers combining for a collective non-violent expression of resistance
What evidence supports the argument that admiration for Jackson transcended Black religious and political sects? (3)
Malcolm X described her as:
“greatest of them all”
Praised her humility for unannounced singing with Parish church congregations
Said she was “the first negro that Negroes made famous”
What aspects of black culture did Mahalia repeatedly credit as playing a significant role in the development of her style? (4)
Slavery music she heard at church
Work songs from vendors on the streets of New Orleans
Blues and jazz bands
Also retained her dialect - challenged shame among middle/lower class AA for the speech patterns
What is the link between Thurman and spirituals and Mahalia Jackson?
Long tradition of using music - gospel music new phase within this
What is the significance of Singing of Good Tidings and Freedom being from Mahalia’s autobiography?
Same thing of Black women writing themselves into the narrative
What is the contemporary and historical significance of Mahalia’s singing at March on Washington?
Performance to c.250k people at March but also on TV/radio
Millions of people across country and world also watching
Sense of audience and role that TV plays in expanding that audience - can speak to white audiences
What does Mahalia argue music is and how in Singing of Good Tidings? (3)
Music = powerful tool for bringing hope and raising action
Deep affinity and connection from crowd in moment she began to sing
“It looked as if we had the whole city rocking”
Why does Mahalia emphasise the importance of religion to the CRM? (3)
“I’m gonna tel my Lord when I get home”
Comfort to AA population that their long suffering not permanent and that an afterlife of “home” was waiting for them
Idea kept many CR activists going face of racism and white supremacy
Why did Mahalia say freedom songs caught on? (2)
Because “music speaks a language to individual souls that cannot always be expressed by spoken word”
Could reach all levels of the Black community no matter level of education/religious denomination
What is the historical context of “freedom songs” used by Civil rights organisations to motivate enthusiasm?
Spirituals originally sung by Slaves
What did SNCC student activists do?
wrote new lyrics to some spirituals to sing time when such powerful displays of emotion and fervour in religion being undermined by clergy who linked such behaviours to backwards rural South
Who was Joseph Jackson?
AA pastor
Longest-serving NBC President
Who succeeded Joseph Jackson at Pastor of Olivet in 1941
Lacey Kirk Williams
What was the change in Joseph Jackson’s civil rights stance?
Supported Montgomery Bus Boycott in 1956
By 1960 vs denomination’s involvement in Civil Rights
What was the 1961 Baptist schism? (3)
Division over using united power of NBC to promote CR
Failure to oust Jackson
Led to creation of PNBC - MLK and Mays
What was Joseph Jackson’s vocal stance of “civil rights through law and order” in direct opposition to?
Direct opposition to MLK’s civil disobedience
What did Joseph Jackson believe respecting the existing system and adhering to American creed was enough to do?
enough to make a difference
What did Joseph Jackson think would see promises of the Constitution and Declaration of Independence fulfilled? (3)
Patience, faith and a just system
How did King’s view of the Constitution and the Declaration of Independence differ from Jackson’’s?
King’s view of these docs as ones of liberation that should be used to place pressure on the morals of the nation
Who did Joseph Jackson oppose?
Opposed those who promoted Black nationalism or sought a distinctive Black Theology
What did Jackson’s opposition of direct action lead to?
1961 schism c. 500k members left
What is National Baptist Philosophy of Civil Rights source?
Excerpt from book on NBC’s civil right philosophy under Jackson’s presidency (1955-82)
What is Jackson defending his conservative black patriotism in the context of in NBP of CR?
Defending his conservative Black patriotism in context of criticsm he was receiving for seemingly having opposed CRM
Though Jackson asserts he advocacted for welfare of all AAs, why does he say this was not enough to achieve freedom?
need to tackle economic power disparity (racists)
What for Jackson did putting economics at the centre of his CR approach mean? (2)
Turning protest into production
Emphasis on need for AA economic independence
What was significant about RFK’s tenure as Attorney General (1961-64)? (3)
Tenure associated with civil rights advocacy
1961 spoke to Freedom Riders in Alabama
BUT also authorised Hoover and FBI’s surveillance of MLK and SCLC
What is significant about RFK being US Senator from NY (1965-8)?
Northern support base ?
What is the significance of RFK being JFK’s brother?
Associated with his brother’s Civil Rights legacy
CR Act passed by LBJ as part of this
How did RFK become the leading Democratic Presidential candidate?
Became leading candidate by appealing to poor, poc, Catholic and young voters in 1968
What is the historical significance of Remark being an unprepared off-the-cuff speech at a rally in Indiana?
Expected to be giving a rousing campaign speech
Immediately following MLK’s assassination
1st person to publicly announce news
Released a formal response the next day “On the Mindless Menace of Violence”
At his presidential campaign rally in the heart of an AA ghetto in Indiana
Humanises him - intended to prove his genuine concern for the AA community by visiting and addressing assasination immediately
How does RFK encourage AAs to choose assimilation and non-violence in his speech?
Promise of hope
Draws on MLK’s “I have a dream Speech”
Draws on message and oeuvre of MLK
Asking them to carrying on his fight and live his way
“MLK dedicated his life to love and to justice between fellow human beings. He died in the cause of that effort”
How does RFK position MLK’s death?
As a collective loss not one for AA community
“Sad news for all of our fellow citizens, and people who love peace all over the world”
How does RFK suggest that MLK’s assassination should be a turning point?
“It’s perhaps well to ask what kind of a nation we are and what direction we want to move”
What does RFK say of Bitterness, hatred and revenge?
Can sucumb to this polarisation or turn to MLK’s way of life
What does RFK relate AA’s suffering over MLK’s death to?
His own following JFK’s assasination
What does RFK say the vast majority of AAs want?
Vast majority of Americans regardless of race want peace/harmony
How successful was RFK’s speech?
Disturbances in 125 cities in 19 states but not where RFK gave speech
Important to note about RFK?
Assassinated months later
Who was Charles S Johnson?
American sociologist and college administrator
First Black President of Fisk
What was Charles S Johnson a lifelong advocate for?
Lifelong advocate for racial equality and advancement of CR for AAs and ethnic minorities
Why did Charles S Johnson prefer to work with liberal white groups as a “sideline activist”?
To get practical results
Why did Charles S Johnson’s position often contrast with Du Bois?
Du Bois who was powerful and militant advocate for blacks and described Johnson as “too conservative”
What did Charles S Johnson believe literature was?
“the soft spot…in the armor of the nation”
Why did Charles S Johnson enrol in Sociology Department at Uni of Chicago?
wanted to train in a school that had strong religious affiliation
What was Charles S Johnson among the first of?
He was among the first professionally trained black sociologists with access to the funds and institutional resources needed for large-scale research projects
What did Charles S Johnson’s overall conclusions downplay?
His overall conclusions downplayed the degree to which his subjects allied themselves with religious beliefs. He simply accused the rural church of preserving anachronistic cultural values that might otherwise have been altered to better suit modern urban life
What else does Charles S Johnson criticise the church for?
Criticising the church for not doing enough
How was James Cone’s advocacy of black theology and black liberation theology a split from earlier thought?
No longer influenced by white theology
Claimed couldn’t look towards WT for ethical guidance
What was Cone’s Black Theology and the Black Church (1977) originally?
Originally a lecture for Black Theology Project
What was Cone’s Black Theology and the Black Church (1977) an opportunity to do?
Opportunity to respond to criticism he had received for his interpretations
What was Black Theology and the Black Church (1977) motivate by?
Motivated by challenge of Black Power, Criticism of Christianity and Black Church to create a Black theology in response and “Save” Christianity
Trying to convince that it is possible to be a Christian and Black
What did James Cone’s articulation of a Black liberation theology say about God and Christ in Christianity? (2)
God on the side of the oppressed
Jesus a quintessential symbol of liberation
What does Cone say Black theology is and why? (2)
Black theology = a form of activism
Directly opposed to unchristian White Theology
What does Cone call the gospel of Black Power?
The assertion of Black humanity and Christ’s central message to 21st century America
How was Cone’s black theology inspired by MLK and Malcolm X?
“You might say we took our Christian identity from Martin and our emphasis on Blackness from Malcolm”
What is the significance of Cone’s text being an academic reasoned response?
It is an intellectual process
Why was Cone’s academic reasoned response so radical?
Complete reinterpretation of Black Christianity
How was Cone’s academic reasoned response different from the sociological perspective of earlier?
Focus on Church and its theology, not just how it is run and planned
The historical context of Cone’s work? (4)
Time when churches and other religious groups contemplating how they were going to move forward post CR-period
Discussion still going on a decade after height of CRM
Black Church faced a dilemma when Black Power statement on whether to condemn it as Unchristian and unAmerican in line with whites or accept it
Lots of AAs a Black Divinity Schools criticised churches for being too conservative and influenced by white religious traditions
Facts about Malcolm X’s Childhood/upbringing? (4)
Born Malcolm Little
Dad - outspoken Baptist minister
Parents UNIA members
Instilled Black Price and self-reliance in their children
What is the historical significance of X’s imprisonment? (5)
Period of self-enlightenment studying teachings of Elijah Muhammad
White society actively worked to keep AAs from empowering themselves and achieving political, economic, and social success
Converted to Islam and became a member of NOI
Changed his name - X symbolises his lost tribal name
AAs lost their genealogy - reclaiming heritage and distancing himself from slave owners
What is the significance of X becoming the face of the Nation of Islam?
- Largely credited with increase in membership
- 1952 - 500 members; 1963 - 300k members
What is the historical significance of Elijah Muhammad’s affair on X’s life and thought? (5)
Shattered his worldview
No longer viewed him as a living prophet
Believed NOI Islam based on lies tf fraudulent
Left NOI
Founded his own religious organisation: The Muslim Mosque Incorportated
What is the historical significance of X’s Mecca Pilgrimage?
Following his departure from NOI
Contested whether this was a turning point in his life
What is the historical significance of X’s articulation of the “gospel of ‘Black Nationalism’”? (2)
Still a Muslim but later situates his values in this instead of Muhammed’s teachings
Didn’t see need to migrate ‘Back’ to Africa but ideology rooted in earlier ideas of the Black Social Gospel and the racial separatism encouraged by Garvey
What is the significance of Malcolm X to the CRM?
National conversation about nature of CRM represented one aspect of what was happening locally - due to focus on MLK
Militant activists like X portrayed as being outside the mainstream of Black thought but were widely known
Anti-accomodationist tactics
Need to overhaul system and demand rights
Described March on Washington as a “farce on Washington”
What is the significance of the Ballot or the Bullet 1963 being a speech delivered at Cory Methodist Church to the Cleveland chapter CORE? (2)
Likely influenced themes of unity and anti-accomodationist tones of speech
Performative piece - trying to persuade audience and gain their support/attention
What does X stress the need for in the Ballot or the Bullet?
Need for action from Black Community
Despite willingness to cooperate w wider movement why is X still critical and frustrated with accommodating position often adopted by Black activists? And why does X argue for the importance of a united stance and collective action vs white supremacy in Ballot or Bullet? (2)
Cannot aim to function peacefully within structures of white supremacy
Equality and respect not things black Americans should ask the white man for, it is an attitude they should demand and deserve
What does X say about the Gospel of Black Nationalism in Ballot or the Bullet? (3)
It is the autonomy of AAs in controlling their politics, economy, and general society
Being taught everywhere
Transcends religious divisions, political organisational divisions, freethinkers and religious officials
What does X say about the power of the Ballot to achieve autonomy? (3)
Ultimatum for US government
Without a political arm AAs going to be forced to “cast a bullet”
Not explicitly advocating violence but emphasising that passivity is not an option
What is the historical significance of the Ballot and the Bullet speech being in 1964?
Lead up to 1964 Presidential election - reason why he he thinks it urgent that AAs unite and can vote to make change
Notes fallacy in this logic as politicians in Senate and not electorate who had final say on CR
What is the significance of the Ballot or the Bullet being post-X’s expulsion from NOI for X’s oeuvre ? (3)
Clear shift in his personal philosophy
Still considered himself muslim but now situated his values in Gospel of Black Nationalism
NOI forbid its members from participating in political processes and refused to engage with the CRM
How does X’s Ballot or the Bullet challenge traditional historiographical view on Black Power? (3)
Stokely Carmichael’s 1966 articulation of Black Power seen as separate and distinct from CRM
Speech indicates Black Power being considered before historians traditionally thought
Revisionist view that it sprung up in 1966 and was different from CRM - not necessarily mutually exclusive
What is the historical significance of X being assassinated the following year in Feb 1965?
not sure but also important to note he goes to Mecca April 1964 same month as Ballot or Bullet speech
What is the significance of X’s 1965 autobiography as told by Alex Healey?
Based on interviews with X
Began interviews before split from NOI so able to record change over time
Writes autobiography years later
Initially meant to be a biography about a religious conversion but stops being about that
Healey convinced X to keep religious bits to attract an audience
Doesn’t distinguish between his voice and Malcolm’s - unclear what is truly X
What does X’s autobiography say about race and racism? (3)
Starts with a passive acceptance of the effects of racism
Starts to gain and emphasise self-respect amongst AA men
Belief in the potential for a brotherhood of all men?
What does X’s autobiography say about religion? (3)
Continuous struggle to find a faith in which can flourish spiritually and intellectually
The brotherhood of the Hajj emphasises a religion in which everyone is equal under the one true God, in which there are no good or bad races and there are no “Divine Men”
Explanation of his time as a minister for NOI and their advocacy of separatism
Why does X’s autobiography argue Bible is the worst weapon of whites? (3)
Christianity active tool to oppress AAs as whites will never change how they interpret the Bible
Church silence and passive on purpose - will always be a tool of subjugation
BUT leaves space for Cone and Black theology because of emphasis on oppressiveness of Christianity in white man’s hands
How are X’s autobiography and Ballot or the Bullet different with regards to religion?
Very different to Ballot and Bullet’s decentring of religion and divides - maybe haley’s doing not X’s by this point?
What does X’s autobiography say about class differences? (5)
Acknowledges this as the cause of disunity in AA community
Middle-class Blacks fake sense of status blinds them to their inferior status in America and makes them hostile to change
Roxbury, Boston - mc Blacks segregated themselves from lc despite in practical terms having hardly any more wealth
Seeks support of the Black intelligentsia
Racial justice should be the true and unified struggle for all AAs not class warfare
Who was Albert Cleage
AA nationalist Christian minister
Ordained in Congregational Church
What is evidence that Cleage became more involved in Black Nationalism in the 1970s, following his Myths about Malcolm speech? (4)
Changed his name
Rejected some of the principles of racial integration
Began to rethink eurocentricity of the Christ event
Broke from white congregation and formed Pan-African Orthodox Christian Church
What do many of Cleage’s published sermons do?
Many of his published sermons criticise non-violent strategy of CRM and emphasised Black Power platform
What is evidence of Cleage’s being an influential political figure in the Detroit CRM?
Chairman of the Detorit Inner City Organizing Committee
What is the significance of Myths about Malcolm (1967) being originally a speech given at a memorial meeting for Malcolm X at the Friday Night Socialist Forum in Detroit?
Well-known in this area
Socialist audience - influenced/tailored content of speech
Relates X to Panthers and CRM - believed X laid entire foundation for Carmichael and Panthers and even the CRM
What does the Later publication of Myths about Malcolm in International Social Review suggest?
Suggests was a success among the audience
What does Cleage do in source?
Rejects a number of myths he believes had been perpetuated about X since his death
What does Cleage argue is at risk?
What X stood for and his message at danger of being lost
What does Cleage argue are the myths? (3)
Myth that he changed his perspective of whites post-Mecca and became an integrationist, attempted to internationalise Black Man’s struggle and take troubles to UN w help of Black Africans
How does Cleage discount the content of the Ballot or Bullet?
Says X doesn’t mean it
What does Cleage say needs to be preserved?
Need to preserve memory of X who operated from powerbase of Muslims pre-split w NOI when he became an individual
What does Cleage say is the main principle that cannot be forgotten?
Main principle of X that cannot be forgotten is that the white man was the enemy and integration was impossible
How do Cleage compare X to Jesus?
Compares X to Jesus and people attaching meaning to his life that might not have been there following his death
Why does Cleage think he has the authority to reject these myths?
Personal reflection on X’s significance having known him personally
Believes this gives him ability/knowledge to reject these myths
What does George Breitman do? (5)
Gave another talk on same topic three weeks later
Written about subject before
Responded to points made by Cleage
Battle for Historical hegemony already being fought
Largely agreed with Cleage, but disagreed on point that real Malcolm would be forgotten or obscured through distortion
