Glossary Terms Flashcards
ABCD Model
Used for developing program objectives and includes A=audience (individuals influenced by the program objective), B=behavior (expected action or attitude), C=conditions (context or mode in which behavior will occur), and D=description (concrete performance criterion)
ABCDEs
An acronym used to explain the core beliefs of REBT
ABC-X model of Family Crisis and Stress
Acronym for the model created by Hill through observations of families experiencing separation and reunification during and after WWII: A-provoking stressor event; B-family resources; C-meaning attached to the stressor/event; D-the crisis, which is an acute state of family disequilibrium/immobilization
Ability Assessment
A broad category of assessment instruments that measure the cognitive domain. Assessment of ability includes tests that measure achievement
Ableism
The belief that individuals with disabilities are limited in what they can do and undervalues their abilities
ACA Code of Ethics
A set of guidelines established by the American Counseling Association (ACA) to guide the professional practice of counselors in order to ensure the welfare and safety of clients
Acceptance and Commitment Therapy
A cognitive behavioral therapy that emphasizes acceptance and mindfulness processes. A central tenet is that maladaptive behaviors develop from clients’ attempts to avoid or suppress negative thoughts and feelings.
Accommodation
An individual perceives and interprets new information in a way that causes the restructuring of existing cognitive structures.
Accountability
From a program evaluation perspective, a process of providing feedback about a program to its stakeholders.
Accreditation
A process that eligible educational institutions and organizations can elect to undergo to demonstrate that the institution meets set standards.
Acculturation
A process by which groups of individuals from differing cultures exchange cultural attributes as a result of continuously close contact. Typically, the minority group’s adoption of the dominant culture’s beliefs, values, and language; however, the dominant group can also adopt minority cultural patterns.
Acculturative Stress
The cognitive and affective consequences associated with leaving one’s one country and entering a host country. Individuals with this have to adapt to the values, norms, and behaviors of a new culture and lose some of their cultural identity in the process.
Achievement Tests
Assess the knowledge and skills an individual has acquired in a particular area due to instruction or training experiences.
Acting “As If”
An adlerian counseling technique that encourages clients to act like they are the person they hope to be someday. This technique helps clients realize that they are capable of changing and being the person they want to be.
Action Research
Research carried out in an effort to improve practice or organizational efficiency. It is used as a means to test new approaches, theories, or ideas and reflect on one’s own teachings in an effort to enhance effectiveness.
Active Imagination
A Jungian technique that requires clients to actively talk to the characters in their dreams.
Active Listening
A counseling technique used in both individual and group therapy in which the counselor attends to the nonverbal and verbal behaviors of clients to show that the counselor is paying attention.
Active Theories
Developmental theories that portray people as active in regulating or governing their behavior.
Adaptation
According to Piaget, individuals must ——- their existing cognitive structures when new information is encountered. The ______ of cognitive structures occurs through two complementary processes known as assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation and accommodation assist an individual in reducing the disequilibrium that results from encountering new information, which challenges previously existing ways of thinking.
Adaptive Information Processing (AIP)
This theory holds that the brain is capable of adapting and learning from the events in our life. Pathology develops when this adaptive process has not occurred or has not been completed around a traumatic or stressful event.
Addiction
The psychological or physiological dependence on a substance or activity to maintain normal functioning. _______ is generally associated with increased tolerance and the experience of withdrawal symptoms when the drug is removed.
Alfred Adler
A Viennese psychologist who developed the theory of individual psychology. He was the first major figure to break away from Freudian psychoanalysis because he disagreed with Freud over the importance of sexuality in motivating human behavior.
Advisory Committeee
Used in program development and evaluation. Typically, the committee is composed of representatives from various stakeholder groups and varies widely in form and function.
Advocacy Counseling
Promotes the needs of clients, communities, and the counseling profession at the local, state, regional, and national levels.
Affectional Orientation
The suggested term used to describe sexual minorities, as it acknowledges that all relationships involve attraction, emotional stability, communication styles, and other interpersonal factors and feelings in addition to sexual attraction.
Ageism
The stereotyping and discrimination against individuals or groups as a result of their age. Ageism is based on the false notion that chronological age determines and individual’s characteristics and value.
Aggression
Taking action with the intent to cause pain or harm. _______ can be verbal, physical, or relational.
Aggressiveness
Displayed in a group as frequent disagreement with, and forceful attempt to impose ideas upon, the leader and other members.
Aging
A set, predictable process involving growth and change in an organism over time. _____ is categorized as biological, psychological, and social. Two primary theories of ______ have been proposed: disengagement theory (views withdrawal from social system as a natural process) and activity theory (suggests that people prefer to remain socially active when they age.
Agnosticism
The belief that any ultimate being is unknown or unknowable
Mary Ainsworth
She described four patterns of infant attachment: secure, avoidant, ambivalent, disorganized
Alcoholics Anonymous
An organization that provides self-help groups and resources to persons who abuse alcohol. ____ assists individuals with gaining and maintaining control over their lives through sobriety.
Alignments
Alliances between family members (i.e., the ways family members join with and oppose each other)
Alliances
The subgrouping of members in group therapy. Positive ______ can provide sources of support and strength and lead to high levels of group performance and cohesion, serving much the same intimacy function as friendships and families. However, __________ that are exclusionary can prevent members from forming productive relationships and achieving individual and group goals.
Alternative Hypothesis
A hypothesis developed in order to be eliminated; it addresses the question “What else could be causing the results?” __________ usually involve outlining potential extraneous variables. It is notated Hsub1.
American Association of State Counseling Boards (AASCB)
Created to connect together states’ licensure boards in order to promote communication to the public and collaboration among states regarding counseling licensure laws and legal matters.
American College Counseling Association (ACCA)
A division of ACA, the ______ is a professional association for counselors working in higher education.
American Counseling Association (ACA)
The largest professional association for counselors. ___ was established in 1952, to promote the growth and development of the profession.
American Group Psychotherapy Association (AGPA)
An interdisciplinary organization promoting research and practice in group psychotherapy for individuals with mental disorders.
American Mental Health Counselors Association (AMHCA)
The division of the ACA that services as the professional association for mental health counselors.
American Personnel and Guidance Association (APGA)
Known today as the ACA
American Rehabilitation Counseling Association (ARCA)
A division of ACA, _____ is the professional association for rehabilitation counselors, educators, and students.
American School Counselor Association (ASCA)
The division of ACA that serves as the professional association for school counselors committed to increasing student achievement and success.
American Society of Group Psychotherapy and Psychodrama (ASGPP)
Founded by J.L. Moreno, this professional association promotes standards in training, research, and practice in psychodrama, sociometry, and group psychotherapy.
Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) of 1990
Prohibits discrimination against persons with disabilities in employment, public services, and telecommunications, and requires accommodations for access.
Amplification
A technique in which Jung compared the dreamer’s image to stories or images in myths, fairy tales, literature, art, and folklore. ________ helps the analyst identify central archetypes and possible meanings behind dreams.
Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA)
A statistical test that includes an independent variable as a covariate, or a variable that needs to be statistically adjusted and controlled in order to look at the relationship of other independent variables and the dependent variable.
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
A statistical test that involves having at least one independent variable in a study with three or more groups or levels. An _____ provides an F ratio, which indicates if two or more of the group means are statistically different. With more than one independent variable, a factorial _____ is used. Factorial _____s yield both main effects and interaction effects.
Androgyny
An individual’s embodiment and expression of both male and female traditional characteristics.
Annulment
The voiding of a marriage
Aptitude Tests
Assess what a person is capable of learning and attempt to predict how well that individual will perform in the future.
Arbitration
Use of a third party to make decisions that resolve a conflict for the involved individuals
Archetypes
A Jungian concept used to refer to innate, universal templates for human thought and behaviors. _____ are patterns of human experience and interpretations that have existed since the origin of human kind.
Army Alpha
Devleoped by Robert Yerkes, the ______ is an intelligence test developed during WWI to screen the cognitive ability of military recruits
Army Beta
The language-free version of the intelligence test used during WWI to screen the cognitive ability of military recruits who could not read or speak English
Asking the Question
The question, often asked of Adlerian psychology, “How would your life be different if you were well?” Many variations of this question are used, the primary goals being to help clients think about the possibility of no longer having their problem and to show clients that they have the ability to change their lives. This question also helps counselors gain a clearer picture of what the client would like to change and whether the problem is physiological or psychological.
Aspirational Ethics
The optimal standard of behavior and the highest professional standards of conduct to which professional counselors can aspire.
Assertiveness Training
The use of behavioral techniques such as shaping, modeling, and behavioral rehearsal to assist clients in learning how to be assertive and speak up for themselves in an appropriate manner without being passive or aggressive.
Assessment
The systematic process of gathering and documenting information regarding a client’s knowledge, skills, attitudes, and/or beliefs.
Assimilation
The process by which an individual perceives and interprets new information through previously existing cognitive structures.
Assimilation Model
A model of acculturation in which highly acculturated individuals identify solely with the new culture, so that one group adopts values and customs of another, more dominant group.
Association for Adult Development and Aging (AADA)
A division of the ACA founded in 1986 to improve the counseling services available to adults at all stages of life through advancing counselor education and preparation related to human development and aging.
Association for Assessment and Research in Counseling (AARC)
A division of ACA founded in 1965 to guide the proper development, training, and use of assessment and research in counseling. Formerly known as the Association for Assessment in Counseling and Education (AACE).
Association for Counselor Education and Supervision (ACES)
A division of ACA founded to enhance counseling services in all specializations through the promotion of quality education, supervision, and credentialing of counselors.
Association for Counselors and Educators in Government (ACEG)
A division of ACA founded to connect counselors and educators working in government and military settings.
Association for Creativity in Counseling (ACC)
This professional association, a division of ACA, was founded to promote imaginative and creative approaches to counseling and is comprised of counseling professionals from diverse specializations, including dance, art, music, and play therapy.
Association for Humanistic Counseling (AHC)
This “heart and conscience of the counseling profession” looks after the mental health and wellness of both clients and counselors. Formerly known as Counseling Association for Humanistic Education and Development (C-AHEAD).
Association for Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Issues in Counseling (ALGBTIC)
A division of ACA established to fight in the crusade for recognition of sexual minority issues within the counseling profession.
Association for Multicultural Counseling and Development (AMCD)
A division of ACA created to raise awareness about multicultural issues in counsleing.
Association for Specialists in Group work (ASGW)
A division of ACA founded in 1973 for the advancement of professionalism in group work
Association for Spiritual, Ethical, and Religious Values in Counseling (ASERVIC)
A division off ACA created to promote the incorporation of spiritual, religious, and ethical values into counselors’ educational programs and professional practices
Atheism
The disbelief in the existence of God.
Attending
A basic counseling skill that involves the counselor’s use of verbal and nonverbal behaviors to convey to the client that the counselor is actively listening and is interested in client self-disclosures. Nonverbal behaviors include eye contact, an open stance, head nodding, gestures, and silence; verbal behaviors include door openers and minimal encouragers.
Attention-Seeking Behaviors
Behaviors that call attention to the group member and away from other members.
Attenuation
A misleading correlation that occurs when unreliable measures indicate a lower relationship between two variables than actually exists.
Attribution Theory
Concerned with how people perceive their own as well as others’ behaviors. It also examines the cause an individual gives to events and how these cognitive perceptions shape one’s behavior.
Authoritarian
A group leadership style in which the group leader takes control of and responsibility for the group; sets the agenda, goals, and rules; and serves as the conduit for member interaction.
Automatic Thoughts
A term used in cognitive therapy to refer to immediate personal beliefs and ideas that are unexamined and dysfunctional.
Autonomy
The ability of clients to exercise free will and act independently
Autosomal Diseases
Genetic disorders that involve a chromosome other than the sex chromosome. Examples are phenylketonuria, sickle cell anemia, and Tay-Sachs disease.
Back Home Visits
A technique used in Bowen family systems therapy that requires clients who have unresolved issues to visit their family of origin in order to increase the client’s differentiation.
Albert Bandura
He developed social learning theory, which is based on the principle that people learn through observation, imitation, and modeling.
Bar Graph
A graph that displays nominal data. Each ____ represents a distinct response, and the height indicates the frequency of that response.
BASIC ID
An acronym used to describe the seven assessment domains in multimodal therapy.
Behavioral Rehearsal
A technique used by the client to practice or rehearse new behaviors until he or she is confident enough to try the new behaviors outside of the counseling environment.
Behaviorism
A scientific, research-based theory of counseling that aims to modify clients’ maladaptive behaviors. Counselors who use this approach focus only on overt, observable client behaviors and specify that all client behavior is learned and, therefore, can be unlearned. Often referred to as the “second force” in counseling.
Belmont Report
A report prompted by the ethical issues arising from the Tuskegee syphilis study. Created by the former U.S Department of Health, Education, and Welfare to outline ethical principles and guidelines for research involving human participants.
Beneficience
In contrast to nonmaleficence, means doing only good.
Eric Berne
Developed Transactional Analysis
Between-Groups Design
A general category of experimental research designs that involves exploring the effects of a treatment or intervention between two groups or among more than two groups.
Bias
In assessment, a broad term that refers to an individual or group being deprived of the opportunity to demonstrate their true skills, knowledge, abilities, and personalities on a given assignment.
Biculturalism
A model of acculturation in which individuals identify with both their own culture and the host culture.
Biography
A qualitative research tradition that seeks to identify personal meanings individuals give to their social experiences. The researcher gathers stores and explores meanings for an individual as well as how the stories fit into a broader social or historical context.
Biological Aging
Categorization of aging as biological (how the body functions and changes over time)
Biracial Individuals
Individuals who are the biological children of parents from two different racial backgrounds.
Birth Order
Also referred to as sibling position; the position children occupied in their families of origin. Alfred Adler believed that where individuals fall chronologically in their family influences their personalities.
Bisexual
Said of an individual who is attracted to members of the same and opposite sex
Blind Study
A study in which the participants are not aware of the condition (treatment or control group) to which they have been assigned.
Blocking
A technique used in group counseling to stop a counterproductive member behavior in order to protect other members from potentially damaging interactions.
Boundaries
The physical and psychological factors that separate the family system from outsiders, as well as define roles and responsibilities within a family unit. _______ can be either rigid or flexible.
Bowen Family Systems Therapy
Developed by Murray Bowen, this theory proposes that healthy peoples’ thoughts are differentiated from their feelings. healthy individuals have also resolved their family of origin issues and do not experience undue anxiety when relationships with others become stressful.
Murray Bowen
Developed Bowen family systems therapy, which maintains that people are affected by their family of origin and must resolve any issues from childhood to keep from repeating dysfunctional patterns of interaction in future relationships.
John Bowlby
Described infants’ innate ability to bond with their caregiver.
Bridging
A technique used in multimodal therapy by which counselors match their approach to a client’s preferred domain in order to strengthen the therapeutic alliance and increase the client’s comfort with the counseling process.
Burnout
A type of work-related strain stemming from repeated exposure to stressful circumstances that results in emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and reduced personal accomplishment. ____ has been empirically linked to several mental, behavioral, and physical symptoms.
Gerard Caplan
Expanded Eric Lindemann’s work by applying public health and preventative psychiatry principles.
Career
The lifetime pursuits of an individual. While the term can be broadly defined to include all the roles people play throughout their lifetime, many theorists maintain that the term ______ is largely concerned with an individual’s work and leisure roles.
Career Adaptability
An individual’s readiness and available resources for coping with changing work and employment conditions. It involves the ability to cope with predictable career development tasks as well as a future orientation that permits individuals to continually capitalize on their skills and abilities.
Career Adjustment
A worker’s ability to adapt or adjust to the work environment.
Career Assessment
A broad process of systematically collecting career-related information using multiple methods. ________ results can provide an individual with information concerning career options, career planning courses, personality type, aptitudes, career-related beliefs, interests, work values, career development stage, and career barriers. Three commonly used methods include interviewing, formal testing, and self-assessment.
Career Choice
The decisions individuals make at any point in their career about which work and leisure activities to pursue.
Career Construction Theory
Mark Savickas’ narrative career counseling approach which maintains that individuals construct their careers by imposing meaning on vocational behaviors. This approach emphasizes individual personality types, life themes, and career adaptability.
Career Counseling
The process by which professional counselors facilitate an individual’s development of a life career; specifically, counselors focus on assisting clients with defining their role as a worker and understanding how that role interacts with their other life roles.
Career Decision-Making Theories
A group of career theories that focus on the decision-making process and are less concerned with the careers people actually choose.. Theories falling within this category can be prescriptive (describe ideal approaches to decision making) or descriptive (explain how individuals actually make vocational choices).
Career Decision-Making Self-Efficacy
The degree to which individuals feel competent in their ability to make a career decision. persons with high __________ will readily engage in career decision-making behaviors, whereas those with low ___________ may give up easily if they run into barriers or avoid engaging in these behaviors altogether.
Career Development
A process by which individual s grow and change to cope with and accommodate career issues that arise throughout their lifetime.
Career Development Inventories
A group of inventories that identify personal factors that may impede or facilitate an individual’s career development process. Typically these inventories measure factors related to faulty career beliefs, anxiety, career maturity, and career barriers.
Career Development Theory
Developed by Ginzberg, Ginsburg, Axelrad, and Herma, this lifespan theory focuses on the career decision-making processes of children and adolescents. The theory proposes that career decision making involves three developmental stages: fantasy, tentative, and realistic.
Career Interests
Preferences for particular life activities. Though to play a key role in career decision making and choice. Three types are typically distinguished: expressed, manifested, and tested.
Career Intervention
A counseling itnervention specifically meant to facilitate clients’ career development processes and the attainment of their counseling goals. Career counseling interventions can be implemented in an individual or group session.
Career Maturity
An individual’s readiness tom make good career choices
Career Salience
The significance or importance an individual places on the role of career in relationship to other life roles. ____ is often defined by an individual’s participation, commitment, and value expectations.
Career Transition
A move from one developmental stage to the next. These can be smooth and seamless or or chaotic and disruputive.
Carl D. Perkins Vocational and Technical Education Act of 1984
Provides access to vocational assessment, counseling, and placement services for the economically disadvantaged, those with disabilities, individuals entering nontraditional occupations, adults in need of vocational training, single parents, those with limited English proficiency, and incarcerated individuals.
Case Study
(a) used in human development research to collect data on a developmental change from a single individual, or a single group of individuals experiencing as similar developmental phenomenon (b) a qualitative research approach that describes a case, a distinct system of an event, process, setting, or individuals or small group of individuals
Catching Oneself
An Adlerian counseling technique that encourages clients to catch themselves when they are engaging in the behaviors that are perpetuating their presenting problem
Central Nervous System
A part of the nervous system that consists of the brain and spinal cord.
Central Tendency
Measures of the typical or middle value of the data set.
Certified Rehabilitation Counselor (CRC)
Professionals who seek to help individuals with disabilities work through personal and vocational issues they may encounter as a result of impairment.
Child Abuse
Involves harm to an individual under the age of 18, caused by either exploitation, neglect, or physical, sexual, or emotional abuse
Child Centered Play Therapy (CCPT)
A type of play therapy that adheres to the theoretical principles of Roger’s Client Centered Therapy. __ emphasizes unconditional positive regard, acceptance, and empathetic responding, maintaining that when these basic conditions are present in the therapeutic environment children naturally move toward self-actualization and their full potential.
Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act (CAPTA)
Federal legislation that addresses the prevention, assessment, investigation, and prosecution of child abuse and neglect. The act mandates counselors to report suspicions of child abuse and/or neglect to their local child protective services.
Child Protective Services
A state agency that investigates reports of child abuse and neglect.
Chi Sigma Iota (CSI)
The international honor society for professional counselors, counselor educators, and counseling students. __ was created in 1985 to foster achievement and scholarship within the profession as well as to acknowledge exceptional leaders in the field.
Chi-Square Test
A nonparametric statistical test used to determine whether two or more categorical or nominal variables are statistically independent.
Choice Theory
A theoretical approach developed by William Glasser that holds people make choices to meet their five basic needs: survival, belonging, power, freedom, and fun.
Chronemics
How individuals perceive, structure, and react to time.
Circular Causality
A term used in general systems theory to describe the notion that each family member’s behavior is influenced by other family members.
Circular Questioning
A Milan family therapy technique that uses questions to highlight family connects and differences among family members.
Clarifying
A counseling technique used in individual or group therapy to help the counselors check their understanding of what clients have said.
Classical Conditioning
A learning process, first described by Ivan Pavlov, that occurs when an environmental stimulus is consistently associated with a naturally occurring stimulus.
Classification Systems
Used to assess the presence or absence of an attribute
Classism
A form of oppression based on a person’s social status. _________ can take two forms: structural and internalized.
Client-Centered Counseling
The _______ approach developed by Carl Rogers, which proposes that clients, not counselors, set the pace for counseling and determine the focus of each session. _____ downplays the use of techniques, instead focusing on the development of a trusting, genuine, and accepting therapeutic relationship to facilitate change.
Clinical Assessment
The process of assessing clients through multiple methods such as personality testing, observation, interviewing, and performance in order to increase client self-awareness or assist the professional counselor in client conceptualization and treatment planning.
Clinical Interviewing
The process by which a professional counselor uses clinical skills to obtain information from a client that will facilitate the course of counseling, such as a client’s demographic characteristics, presenting problems, current life situation, family, educational status, occupational background, physical health, and mental health history.
Closed Groups
Leaders allow a set number of members to participate from the group’s beginning to termination and expect consistent attendance throughout the group experience.
Coalitions
Occur when some family members form an alignment against another family member
Coefficient of Determination
The amount of shared variance between two variables; computed by squaring the correlation coefficient
Cognitive Ability Tests
Tests that make predictions about an individual’s ability to perform in future grade levels, colleges, and graduate schools
Cognitive-Behavior Modification
A cognitive behavioral approach created by Donald meichenbaum that trains clients to alter their internal cognitions in order to change the way they react and respond to situations
Cognitive-Behavioral Theories
A counseling approach that seeks to alter both the thoughts and actions of clients through the use of cognitive and behavioral techniques.
Cognitive Dissonance
Conflict or discomfort experienced when a discrepancy is noticed between what an individual already knows and new information being received.
Cognitive Information Processing Approach
A career decision-making theory that emphasizes career decision making an the thought processes that influence decision making. Counselors implementing this strive to understand how the way clients think influences the decision-making process.
Cognitive Rehearsal
A cognitive technique that assists clients in practicing their new thoughts before implementing them in an actual situation.
Cognitive Restructuring
A technique used in cognitive-behavioral modification to help clients adjust their self-talk. The process involves targeting the client’s self-statements that result in problematic behaviors or feelings and replace the self-statements with new statements that are more rational, logical, and positive.
Cognitive Therapy
A type of therapy developed by Aaron Beck which posits that people’s emotions and behaviors are a direct result of their cognitions. Seeks to assist clients in identifying, testing, and restructuring their distorted, dysfunctional thoughts.
Cohort Study
Involves assessing the same population over time
Co-Leadership
Occurs when more than one leader shares or helps to facilitate the group process
Collective Trauma
A community’s reaction to a crisis
Collective Unconscious
A Jungian term used to refer to the part of an individual’s unconscious that is shared by the entire human race. This is a product of ancestral experience and contains archetypes.
Color Blindness
Involves the equal treatment by ignoring racial differences. Professional counselors who endorse this assumption are likely to adopt the attitude that race no longer matters, and in doing so perpetuate a continuing distrust of White counselors for clients of color, diminish the importance that the client’s cultural background has on the client’s worldview, and fail to create therapeutic goals that are met with culturally appropriate treatments.
Color Consciousness
A process by which Whites experience guilt for their role in perpetuating racial discrimination for racial minorities and, as a result, begin to focus solely on racial differences.
Colorism
A form of discrimination in which individuals receive differential treatment based on skin color. Traditionally, individuals whose skin color approximates that of Whites receive preferential treatment.
Coming Out Process
The process of recognizing oneself as a sexual minority and disclosing one’s sexual identity to others
Commission on Rehabilitation Counselor Certification (CRCC)
A non-profit organization that was formed in 1974 to certify rehabilitation counselors who meet particular professional standards and have achieved adequate education and work experience related to rehabilitation.
Common Rule
A part of “Title 45: Public Health, Part 46: Protection of Human Subjects” of the Code of Federal Regulations. It outlines policies that guide researchers who use human subjects. It requires that studies be approved by an IRB.
Communication Disorders
A group of disorders that involve problems in speech, language, and hearing
Comparative Design
A type of nonexperimental design that allows the researcher to investigate group differences for a particular variable in order to determine if there is a difference between the groups.
Compassion Fatigue
Occurs when helping professionals experience overwhelming feelings after being exposed to client crisis states. Professionals may feel hopelessness, a decrease in pleasure, constant stress and anxiety, and a pervasive negative attitude.
Complainants
A term used in SFBT to characterize clients who recognize the existence of a problem and can define it but have yet to commit to solving it.
Complementary Relationships
Relationships in a family between unequals, where one member is one down and the other is one up. Although this description appears negative, this is not necessarily so.
Complex
A Jungian term used to describe amalgamating unconscious feelings, thoughts, and desires. Jung proposed the existence of many kinds of complexes and that each complex revolves around a universal experience, or archetype. complexes symbolize issues that a person needs to resolve.
Compromise
A method professional counselors can use to help group members detach their ideas from their egos in order to promote group goals and enhance the group process.
Computer-Adaptive Testing
A type of testing that has the ability to adapt the test structure and items to the examinee’s ability level.
computer Assisted CareerGuidance Systems
Computer-based systems that provide vocational assessments, occupation and educational information, and career planning tools. Commonly used systems include DISCOVER, SIGI PLUS, Choices, and Guidance Information Service.
Combuter Based Testing
A method for administering, analyzing, and interpreting tests though the use of computer technology, software programs, or Internet sites.
Confianza
A value in the Latino culture that refers to possessing trust and confidence in those with whom one is in a relationship.
Confidentiality
An ethical principle that requires professional counselors to maintain the privacy of information shared by the client during counseling sessions.
Confirmatory Bias
A person’s likelihood of screening for information that confirms previously held beliefs.
Conflict
An intrapersonal struggle in which an individual must make a decision between at least two choices, or an interpersonal struggle between at least two persons who are striving to achieve opposing goals.
Conflict Resolution
The way individuals seek resolution to interpersonal differences. Usually involves negotiating, mediating, facilitating, and arbitrating.
Confronting
A counseling skill that involves informing clients about discrepancies in their words, behaviors, feelings, or nonverbal communication in order to increase client self-awareness so the client can become more congruent.
Congruence
In Holland’s theory of types, the relationship between an individual’s personality and the work environment.
Conscious Mind
Awareness of everything occurring in the present.
Consciousness
A total awareness of one’s self.
Consensual Qualitative Research (CQR)
A qualitative approach that combines the elements of phenomenology and grounded theory and involves researchers selecting participants who are very knowledgeable about a topic and remaining close to data without major interpretation with some hope of generalizing to a larger population.
Consistency
The degree of similarity between the six different Holland types. Holland developed the hexagon model to illustrate the degree of similarity among the different types.
Constructivism
A philosophical paradigm that contends there are multiple realities or perspectives for any given phenomenon. truth differs for individuals and is an internal manifestation, as opposed to positivism and postpositivism, which propose that truth is external to the individual.
Contact Summary Sheet
A data management tool used in qualitative research that provides a single-page snapshot of a specific contact, such as an interview or observation.
Continuous Development
Emphasizes the small shifts or gradual, sequential, changes that occur in behaviors and abilities over time and that are difficult to separate.
Continuous Development
Emphasizes the small shifts or gradual, sequential, changes that occur in behaviors and abilities over time and that are difficult to separate.
Control Group
Used in experimental designs, this group comprises those participants in a study who share very similar attributes with the experimental group but do not receive treatment
Conversion therapy
Also known as reparative therapy, attempts to convert individuals of gay or lesbian sexual identities to a heterosexual identity.
Consultation
A formal process by which professional helpers and individuals/groups form a relationship voluntarily in order to solve a problem. Typically the professional helper assists he individual/group with defining and resolving an issue.
Contingency Contracts
A behavioral technique that uses a chart or table to note whether desired behaviors were achieved. Can also describe the conditions that must be met for the individual to be rewarded.
Core Counseling Conditions
Rogers proposed that counselors must posses ____ in order to promote client change, growth and self actualization.
Correlational Research Design
A type of nonexperimental research design that allows the researcher to describe the relationship between two variables. The variables are not experimentally manipulated; therefore, the researcher cannot determine a causal relationship. Instead, this design computes a correlation coefficient that describes the strength and direction of a relationship.
Correlation Coefficient
A numerical index that represent the relationship between two variables.
Correspondence
the degree to which the individual and work environment continue to meet each others needs
Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs (CACREP)
An independent accrediting agency that provides accreditation for master’s level counseling programs and doctoral level counselor education programs.
Counseling Groups
Groups that are designed to help members work on interpersonal problems and promote behavioral changes related to these problems. They are typically problem oriented, helping member explore their problems and seek resolution; but they can also be preventative, growth oriented, or remedial.
Counselors for Social Justice (CSJ)
A division of the ACA since 2002, this group was established with the mission of confronting oppressive systems of power and privilege relevant to counselors and their clients.
Counselor Supervisors
Experienced professional counselors who provide training to novice counselors.
Counterparadox
Counselors’ technique of asking family members not to change too quickly in order to assist the family in avoiding resistance
Countertransference
A psychoanalytic term used to describe the emotions and fantasies a counselor unconsciously transfers to the client. Typically, these feelings stem from the counselor’s own unresolved conflicts and past relationships.
Crisis
A stressful or traumatic event that compromises a person’s previously effective coping mechanisms.
Crisis Counseling Program (CCP)
A model of crisis intervention that focuses on restoring a sense of safety in the aftermath of a natural disaster.
Crisis Team
A group of professionals from different backgrounds who have been trained to respond to those in crisis.
Criterion-Referenced Assessment
Provides information about an individual’s score by comparing it to a predetermined standard or set criterion.
John Crites
A leading vocational psychologist of the 20th century who researched the area of career maturity and developed the Career Maturity Inventory.
Critical/Ideological Paradigm
A philosophical paradigm that centers on researchers taking a proactive role and confronting the social structure and conditions facing oppressed or underprivileged groups.
Cross-Sectional Design Studies
A research method that allows the researcher to simultaneously compare several groups from differing levels of development with respect to the independent variables
Crystallized Intelligence
A type of intelligence proposed by Cattell that is gained through learning and is greatly affected by life experiences and culture
Cultural Encapsulation
Occurs when the dominant cultural view is regarded in counseling as more important than minority values.
Cultural Identity
Derived from an individual’s sense of belonging to specific subgroups of various cultural groups or categories.
Culture
The shared attitudes, values, expectations, habits, customs and rituals of a group that are transmitted from one generation to the next and provide members with rules for living and adapting to the environment.
Culture Shock
The experience of disorientation and psychological symptoms such as anxiety and depression that occurs when one adjusts to a new culture where rules, customs, and language are unknown.
Customers
A term used in SFBT to characterize the most ideal clients; such clients recognize a problem that needs to be fixed and are committed to fixing it.
Data Display
A data management tool used in qualitative research to present organized data in a table format or a figure containing interconnected nodes. _______ may be created for each participant as well as across a sample.
Decay of Memory Theory
Suggests that traces of information held in memory simply decay over time and that the memory eventually disappears forever.
Decision Accuracy
The accuracy of an instrument in supporting counselor decisions.
Defamation
A type of tort that refers to marring an individual’s reputation through the intentional spreading of falsehoods.
Definitional Ceremony
A technique used in narrative therapy, in which clients tell their new stories to an audience of outside witnesses.
Degrees of Freedom
An important concept used in inferential statistics that refers to the number of IVs free to vary.
Demand Characteristics
Cues that participants pick up from the researcher or research setting that motivate them to behave or respond in certain ways.
Democratic
A group leadership style in which the group leader facilitates member interactions. With the leader’s guidance, members make decisions, take responsibility, set agendas, and establish goals and rules.
Derived Score
A converted raw score that gives meaning to test scores by comparing an individual’s score with those of the norm group.
Descriptive Design
The most prevalent category of nonexperimental research design; includes thoroughly describing a variable at one time or over time.
descriptive Research
A type of nonexperiemental research that is used to describe a phenomenon that does not involve an intervention
Descriptive Statistics
organize and summarize a data set
Steve de Shazer
Developed SFBT
Determinism
A philosophical position that argues people’s actions are predetermined by an external, uncontrollable force, such as genetics or biology.
Detriangulation
In Bowen family systems therapy, learning how to avoid involvement in triangles and how to avoid triangulating others.
Developmental Scores
Scores that put an individual’s raw score along a developmental continuum in order to derive meaning.
Developmental Supervision Approaches
Approaches that emphasize counselor-trainees’ progress through a series of stages as they become more experienced, competent, and independent
Deviation IQ
A type of standardized score that has a mean of 100 and an SD of 15.
Diagnostic Systems
Standardized terminologies, or common languages, that allow mental health professionals to communicate with one another regarding client diagnosis and treatment planning.
Diagnostic Tests
Tests that identify learning disabilities or specific learning difficulties by providing an in-depth analysis of student skill competency in a given academic area.
Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT)
A CBT therapy that has a behavioral component that integrates problem solving with acceptance based strategies, and a dialectical component that emphasizes the thought processes and behaviors used in treating clients with multiple disorders.
Differentiation
An individual or work environment’s level of distinctiveness between each of the six Holland types.
Differentiation of Self
A term used in Bowen family systems therapy to refer to individuals’ ability to separate themselves from their family of origin without cutting themselves off from their families.
Directives
Homework assignments
Direct Observation
Observation that assesses an individual’s behavior in real time and usually occurs in a naturalistic setting
Directory Information
Information that schools can release about students without parental consent. Includes the student’s name, address, telephone number, date of birth, place of birth, honors or awards, and dates of attendance at the school.
Disability
A physical, mental, or behavioral challenge that limits an individual’s ability to function in the activities associated with daily living.
Discontinuous Development
Portrays changes in behaviors and abilities as qualitatively different from previous or subsequent behaviors and abilities.
Discrimination Model
A supervision model that requires the supervisor to be aware of the supervisee’s intervention, conceptualization, and personalization skills and address supervisee needs by adopting the role of either teacher, counselor, or consultant as needed.
Disputing Irrational Beliefs
A technique used in REBT in which the counselor challenges a client’s irrational beliefs
Distorted Thinking
Inaccurate thoughts or ideas that maintain dysfunctional thinking and negative emotions.
Divorce
The formal, legal termination of a marriage.
Document Summary Form
A data management tool used in qualitative research that i similar to a contact summary sheet but is used to document salient themes and reflections from unobtrusive data sources, such as newsletters or artifacts.
Dollard, John, and Neal Miller
proposed that anxiety and psychological disturbances were learned from experiences. They are best known for identifying and describing three types of conflict: approach-approach, approach-avoidance, avoidance-avoidance
Dominant Narratives
Narratives involving cultural customs that affect a client’s life and worldview
Double Blind Study
A study in which neither the researcher nor the participant knows if the participant belongs to the experimental group or the control group.
Double Jeopardy
Individuals who are marginalized as a result of dual minority status
Drawing Out
The group leader directly interacting with a member to get the member to contribute to a discussion topic or activity.
Dream Analysis
A psychoanalytic technique in which dreams are explored and interpreted according to manifest and latent content.
Dream Interpretation
A Jungian technique that involves helping clients understand the personal meaning behind their dreams.
DSM-5
The manual outlining the nosological system most commonly used by mental health practitioners in the United States.
Educational Accreditation
A process by which educational programs and services are evaluated by an external agency to determine whether certain standards are being met.
Educational Record
Any document or information kept by the school relating to a student, such as attendance, achievement, behavior, activities, and assessment
Effect Size
A measure of the strength of the relationship between two variables in a population.
Efficiency Analysis (Cost-Beneift Analysis)
Used in program evaluation to weight the benefits of a particular course of action against the costs.
Ego
In psychoanalysis, the conscious part of the personality. This operates on the reality principle, moderating the wishes and desires of the other parts. this is the logical rational part of the personality that allows the person to function effectively in society.
Ego Psychology
A neo-Freudian theory that developed after Freud’s id, ego, and superego personality model. The psychoanalyst most responsible for this was Heinz Hartmann.
Albert Ellis
An American psychologist who founded REBT.
Emic
A multicultural perspective that maintains counseling approaches should be specific to a client’s culture.
Emotional Control Cards
A technique used in REBT to reinforce the disputation of irrational beliefs outside counseling sessions. These list both appropriate and inappropriate feelings, which can serve as reminders to clients who are having a difficult time.
Emotional Cutoff
Occurs when children, who are highly fused with their families, may cut themselves off from their family of origin through moving, refusing to talk to family members, or only interacting with family members on a surface level in order to improve or maintain their well-being.
Empathizing
One of the core counseling conditions; the counselors ability to understand and effectively communicate back a client’s thoughts, feelings, and world view.
Employment Rate
The number of currently employed individuals divided by the total number of individuals who are of working age
Empowerment
The act of elevating people’s sense of what they can do and their personal value
Empty Chair
A technique used in Gestalt therapy in which a client is asked, through role-playing to talk to conflicting parts of their personality or to an individual with whom they are in conflict
Enactment
A deliberate process by which the counselor encourages the family to play out its problem in the session.
Encode
The process of compacting information in a meaningful way so that it can be stored and retrieved efficiently during transfer from short-term to long-term memory.
Encouragement
An Adlerian Technique whereby the counselor conveys to clients his/her belief and conviction that the client can make important lifestyle changes
Environmental Planning
A behavioral technique that involves having clients rearrange their environments to encourage or discourage certain behaviors.
David Epston
With Michael White, developed narrative therapy
Equilibration
A process, ordinarily accomplished through a combination of assimilation and accommodation, through which motivated people attempt to make sense of new information
Molten Erickson
Developed strategic family therapy
Erik Erikson
Developmental psychologist and psychoanalyst known for his psychosocial theory of human development
Esalen Institute
Uses a humanistic approach to enrich and explore human potential trough multidisciplinary workshops, forums, and retreats
Ethics
Moral principles that guide an individuals’ behavior
Ethnic Identity
Self-perceived sense of membership in an ethnic group, including attitudes and feelings associated with that membership
Ethnicity
An individual’s identification with a group of people who have common social ties due to geographic origins, cultural heritage, language, values, or religious beliefs.
Ethnocentrism
The belief that one’s cultural group is right or superior to all other cultures.
Ethnography
A qualitative research tradition in which the researcher describes and provides interpretations about the culture of a group or system.
Ethological Theories
Developmental theories that emphasize the role of instinct and innate capacities in human development.
Etic
A multicultural perspective that endorses the idea of cultural neutrality and maintains that universal qualities of counseling can be generalized across cultures.
Eugenics Movement
A social movement that attempted to preserve the purity of the Caucasian race by monitoring a person’s innate characteristics and dictating who could marry and reproduce.
Evaluating
The group leader’s continuous monitoring and assessment of group progress, process, and outcomes.
Evaluation
Includes the sharing of insights or judgments about whether a group is accomplishing aggred-on goals; making a determination of worth or significant based on the result of a measurement
Executive Summary
A report that is developed by program evaluators for the advisory committee after the needs assessment is completed.
Exercises
TEchniques in Gestalt therapy that are planned prior to a therapy session.
Existential Counseling
An approach to counseling that assists clients in addressing universal questions about life, death, and freedom and helps them find meaning in their lives
Existential vacuum
A term associated with existential counseling describing the experience of life as empty, meaningless, purposelessness, and so on
Experimental REsearch Designs
Quantitative research designs that assess the cause-and-effect relationships among variables through manipulating research conditions and variables
Experiential Family Counseling
A counseling model that is less concerned with techniques and more concerned with establishing a genuine relationship with clients and helping them bring their problems into the here and now
Explication
A Jungian technique used to help clients determine the reason why certain objects appeared in their dreams
Ex Post Facto Research Designs
Nonexperiemental research designs that involve looking at potential causes of a dependent variable after the fact.
External Validity
The ability to generalize the results of a study to a larger group.
Extinction
The termination of a behavior by withholding reinforcement
EMDR
A technique that attempts to simulate REM sleep, the sleep cycle thought to be most restorative and helpful in working through troubling matters in the unconscious.
Face Validity
A superficial measure that is concerned with whether an instrument looks valid or credible
Facilitation
The use of counseling-related skills, especially in groups, to analyze the conflict, find compromise and solutions, and elicit commitment among individuals.
Factor Analysis
A statistical test used to reduce a larger number of variables to a smaller number of factors
Familismo
A value commonly endorsed by Latin Americans that refers to a strong connection to extended families.
FERPA
Also known as the Buckley Amendment, _____ is a federal law that protects the privacy of student educational Records.
Family of Origin
The family in wich a person grew up.
Family Projection Process
Occurs when undifferentiated parents project their tension and anxiety onto their most susceptible or sensitive child.
Family Theories
Counseling theories that provide practitioners with a systemic way of conceptualizing problems within a family.
Feedback
A counseling skill that involves sharing thoughts, feelings, and impressions about the client directly with the client to help the client gain increased self-awareness, confront inconsistencies, and reinforce progress.
Femininity
Attirubtions commonly associated with a woman, such as relational, nurturing, and emotional.
Feminist Theory
A psychological theory pioneered by Carol Gilligan that espouses equality for all individuals and is particularly dedicated to eliminating sexism.
Fidelity
Facilitating trust, keeping one’s word, and fulfilling obligations to clients.
Filial Piety
A cultural value commonly endorsed by Asian Americans whereby the needs of an individual are often secondary to those of the family
Firing Sequence
A technique used in multimodal counseling in which a counselor works with the client to determine the chain of events leading to a stressor that affects the client’s life in a maladaptive way.
Five Factor Model
An evidence-based model of personality that breaks the construct of personality into five factors
504 Plan
Dictates the accommodations or other special considerations the student is entitled to receive under the Rehabilitation Act of 1973
Fixation
An inability to resolve an important conflict, due to either an overgratification or an undergratification of a need in any stage, that leaves an individual centered on a stage and unable to progress to the next.
Focus Groups
An interview method used in research that typically includes 6-12 participants who can provide information and insight into a particular issue.
Focusing on Others
A group member’s attempt to avoid self-focus and self-disclosure.
Forebrain
Part of the brain that consists of the cerebrum, which is responsible for the higher-order behavior and conscious thought. The cerebrum consists of the left and right hemispheres, the corpus callosum, and the cerebral cortex.
Formative Evaluations
The ongoing evaluations of a program throughout its implementation to ensure that the program is being conducted as planned and that any changes needed based on stakeholder feedback may be made.
Forming and Orienting Stage
The beginning developmental stage of a group. This stage is characterized by group member anxiety, insecurity, and preoccupation with personal issues. Group rules and goals are also established.
Victor Frankl
A Holocaust survivor and Austrian psychiatrist who trained under Alfred Adler. One of the key figures in existential therapy. Founded logotherapy.
Free Appropriate Public Education (FAPE)
Education that addresses studetn’s individual needs and helps ready them for higher levels of educaiton or employment.
Free Association
A psychoanalytic technique that encourages clients to say anything that comes to mind, without thinking. This technique is used to uncover unconscious repressed feelings and thoughts.
Frequency Distribution
Tabulation of the number of observations per distinct response for a particular variable. It is presented in a table format, rows indicating each distinct response and columns presenting the frequency for which that response occurred.
Frequency Polygon
A line graph of the frequency distribution that is used to visually display data that are ordinal, interval, or ratio. The X-axis typically indicates the possible values, and they Y-axis represents the frequency count for each of those values.
Sigmund Freud
An Austrian psychiatrist who is considered to be the father of psychoanalysis
Friedman’s Rank Test
A nonparametric statistical test similar to Wilcoxon’s signed-ranks test in that it is designed for repeated measures. it may be used with more than two comparison groups
Fused
Enmeshed
Games
In transactional analysis, ulteriorly motivated transactions that appear complementary on the surface but end up in bad feelings
Gatekeeping
Occurs when members and leaders insist on adherence to the established group norms.
Gelatt’s Decision-Making Model
Proposes that all decisions have similar qualities in that a choice, which has two or more possible courses of action, must be made and an individual must rationally analyze information to accurately predict the outcome of choice.
Gender
the psychological and social characteristics often associated with an individual’s biological sex but usually derived from cultural rules and norms.
Gender expression
The ways in which individuals portray their gender, ways that may or may not be aligned with gender role expectations.
Gender Identity
A psychological awareness of one’s maleness or femaleness.
Gender Roles
The expectations put on individuals by society regarding how they should behave, think, and be treated because of their biological sex.
Gender Schema Theory
Sandra Bem proposed children learn from society what it means to be male or female. As children begin to internalize the assumptions, they adjust their behavior to conform to society’s gender norms and expectations.
Gender Self-Confidence
The degree to which an individual defines oneself according to traditional views of masculinity and femininity and accepts those views.
General Systems theory
This theory provides a basic framework for understanding the interactions and issues that occur within family systems.
Generational Poverrty
Occurs when poverty has been a factor in several generations
Genograms
Developed by Bowen visual representations of approximately 3 generations of a family
Gerontological Counslign
A specialty area in counseling that is tailored for working with individuals 65 years of age and older
Arnold Gesell
American psychologist and pediatrician that human development reflects a genetic unfolding of, and maturational readiness for, physical, cognitive, language, and social-emotional characteristics or milestones with only slight environmental influence.
Carol Gilligan
An American feminist ethicist and psychologist best known for her work with and against Lawrence Kohlberg on ethical community and ethical relationships, and certain subject-object problems in ethics.
Giving Information
A counseling skill through which counselors provide clients with information to help them achieve their goals.
William Glasser
An American psychiatrist known for developing reality therapy and choice theory.
Gottfedson’s Theory of Circumscription, Comprimoise and Self-Creation
A lifespan theory that outlines the career development processes of children and adolescents .
Roger Gould
An American writer and psychiatrist who studied more than 1,000 adults and discovered that they strove to eliminate false assumptions, usually relating to parental dependency, that restricted young and middle adult development. he viewed adult development as a series of task resolutions that allowed adults to correct these false assumptions and ultimately take control over their lives.
Grounded Theory
A qualitative approach used for the purpose of generating theory that is grounded in data from participants’ perspectives for a particular phenomenon.
Group Climate Measures
Help assess which stage of group process the members have entered and provide leaders with member perceptions of group climate.
Group Coehsion
Feelings of belonging and inclusion that members and leaders experience through group interactions.
Group Dynamics
the interaction among and movement between members in a group.
Group Member Roles
The various positions or expected patterns of behavior group members may adopt during group work.
Group Member Screening
A process conducted by group leader to ensure the appropriateness of member and group fit.
Group Size
The number of people included in a therapy group.
Group Tests
Tests that are administered to two or more test-takers at a time.
Growth Needs
Occur in the labor market when the demand for workers exceeds the number of existing workers and requires more workers to be added to the workforce.
Guide for Occupational Exploration
A print-only source of occupational information. The ____ is published by JIST Works and offers information on over 900 companies.
Guttman Scale
Measures the intensity of a variable being measured. items are presented in a progressive order so that a respondent, who agrees with an extreme test item, will also agree with all previous, less extreme items.
Jay Haley
Helped found the Bateson Group, the MRi, and the Family Research Institute and MRI Interactional Family therapy.
Halo Effect
A type of experimenter effect wherein the researcher’s subjective, usually positive and initial, perceptions of the participant are generalized to other traits and characteristics.
Harry Harlow
Described classic experiments with infant rhesus monkeys that were placed into cages with wire surrogate mothers.
Harm Reduction
A set of public health policies and pragmatic interventions that are designed to reduce the harms associated with drug use and other high risk activities.
Joanne Harris-Bowlsbey
Developed computerized vocational systems such as CVIS, DISCOVER, AND VISIONS and is known for her work in training career development facilitators internationally and fro writing print based career curriculum for high school and college age students
Robert Havingurst
American professor, physicist, educator, and aging expert, who proposed a series of developmental tasks that humans achieve as they grow and develop from infancy through late adulthood.
Hawthorne Effect
A type of experimenter effect in which the presence of the investigator affects participant responses independent of any intervention.
HIPAA of 1996
A federal law that protects the privacy of individuals’ medical and mental health records.
HMO
A type of managed care organization that provides members access to health services at a lower cost.
Here and Now Therapy
A Gestalt approach used to encourage clients to discuss only what is bothering them in the present moment.
Heteronormativity
Societal expectations that individuals, on the basis of their biological sex, adhere to gender roles that complement those of the opposite biological sex.
Heterosexism
Discriminatory attitudes and beliefs toward persons who do not fall within the heterosexual category.
Heterosexual
Individual is attracted to members of the opposite sex
Hierarchy of Needs
Proposes that higher order needs cannot be attained until lower-order needs are met. Developed by Abraham Maslow.
High-Context Communication
Involves relying on factors other than explicit speech to convey a message. Individuals using _____ often infer, imply, or deliver nonverbal cues to convey unspoken messages.
High Stakes Testing
The use of standardized test outcomes to make a major educational decision concerning promotion, retention, educational placement, and entrance into college; as a result, _____ can have serious consequences for the students being tested.
Hindbrain
the brain stem, which consists of the medulla oblangata, cerebellum, pons, and reticular activating system, which act collectively to coordinate maintenance and survival functions such as motor activity, posture, sleep patterns, and essential unconscious activities.
Histogram
A graph of connecting bars that shows the frequency of scores for a variable. Taller bars indicate greater frequency or number of responses. Usually used with quantitative and continuous variables.
John Holland
Known for developing a theory of vocational types, which involves matching persons to work environments.
Holland’s Theory of Types
A trait and type career theory developed by John Holland; assumes that individuals should match their personality type to the work environment.
Homeostasis
The tendency of a family system to sustain normal functioning and patterns of interaction by continually taking inventory of, prioritizing, and tending to their needs so as to maintain health and well-being. Families will resist change unless someone or something intervenes in order to maintain a state of equilibrium.
Homework (Directives)
Assignments given to clients to be completed outside of counseling sessions to reinforce learning and skill acquisition.
Homophobia
An excessive fear of associating with homosexuals and/or being homosexual.
Homoprejudice
A term that has recently emerged in research as scholars suggest that prejudice is more of the cause of discrimination that phobia (homophobia)
Homosexual
Said of an individual who is attracted to members of the same sex
Humanistic Counseling
A group of counseling theories focusing on experiences that are unique to humans. ____ counselors believe in human goodness and the ability of all individuals to strive toward self-actualization give the proper environment. Often referred to as the “third force” in counseling.
Human Validation Process model
Approach developed by Virginia Satir that views symptoms as a way to preserve the family’s homeostasis and as obstructions to growth. Thus, these blockages must be unclogged to allow development to occur.
Hypothesizing
In Milan Family therapy, counselors formulate hypotheses to help family members change and gain more insight into their behavior; these hypotheses are not supposed to be accepted as absolute truths.
Hypothesis Testing
Involves the decision-making process of determining if the null hypothesis is to be retained or rejected based on significance level and the critical value.
Id
In psychoanalysis, the part of the personality that is present from birth and operates on the pleasure principle. Involves innate drives and is concerned solely with achieving pleasure, no matter what the consequences.
Identity
An understanding of oneself as a separate, distinct individual.
Imaginary Audience
A belief maintained by adolescents that everyone is watching and critically judging them.
Implosion or Implosive Therapy
A behavioral technique that teaches clients to vividly imagine hypothetical scenarios that would cause them severe anxiety. Consequently, the client becomes desensitized to and less anxious about this fearful scenario.
Inclusion
A member’s sense of connectedness to the group.
Indirect Observation
Assesses an individual’s behavior through self-report or the use of informants such as family, friends, or teachers.
Individualized Education Plan (IEP)
Delineates what services a student with special needs will receive, when, and how often, as well as yearly goals for the student’s learning, all of which are updated and reviewed.
Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEA) of 2004
A civil rights law that guarantees students with disabilities access to free appropriate public education, and IEP, and receipt of the benefits of education in the least restrictive environment.
Individual Tests
Tests that are administered to one examinee at a time.
Individual Trauma
An individaul’s response to a crisis
Individuation
A Jungian concept that describes the process of discovering one’s true, inner self.
Inductive Analysis
A common process among several research traditions that involves searching for keywords and potential themes from the data without significant preconceived notions of what theory or theories fit the data.
Industrial Revolution
A period that transformed America’s agriculturally based economy into an industrial and manufacturing economy.
Inferential Statistics
Statistical procedures that are used to draw inferences about a population from a sample.
Inferiority Complex
In individual psychology, the characteristic of an individual unable to move beyond feelings of inferiority. Interferes with an individual’s ability to live a healthy, socially interested, and goal directed life. Can lead to overcompensation, which results in a superiority complex.
Informal Assessments
Subjective assessment techniques that are developed to identify the strengths and needs of clients.
Informational Interviewing
An informal method of obtaining occupational information that provides one the opportunity to interview people who are currently employed in a career field of interest.
Information Seeking
Occurs when group members ask for clarification or help to promote self-disclosure in oneself or other members
Informed Consent
Guarantees a client the right choose whether to enter into or remain in a counseling relationship, and ensures the active involvement of the client in decisions made during the counseling process.
Informing
Occurs when a member talks about other members outside of group.
In-Group
The group to which an individual feels similar.
Initiation
Occurs when group members make suggestions or take action to move the group towards goals.
Initiating
A group leader technique that can provide directio for members by initating group topics or activites, thereby allowing members to focus energy and achieve desired outcomes.
IRB
any institution receiving federal funding must sponsor an IRB in order to approve proposals to conduct research with human subjects
Integrated Counseling
A type of counseling that aims to transcend the confines of using single theoretical approaches through the integration of several diverse psychological theories and techniques into one combined approach to therapy.
Integration Model
A model of acculturation in which individuals identify with both their own culture and the host culture.
Integrative Life Planning (ILP)
A holistic career approach designed to assist individuals in exploring how their work is intertwined with other life roles to form a meaningful career.
Intelligence Tests
Broadly assess an individual’s cognitive abilities and yield a single summary score, commonly called an intelligence Quotient
Intentional Tort
A tort in which the counselor’s action would result in harm to the client, even if the counselor did not intend to injure the client.
Interest Assessments
Assessments that facilitate students’ personal exploration of career options in concert with their interests.
Interest-Based Negotiations
A form of conflict resolution that involves the process of finding a commonality between the individuals involved.
IInterest Inventories
A group of inventories that are used to identify an individuals’ work-related interests, as well as what one finds enjoyable and motivating.
Interference Theory
Proposes that learned information is inhibited by other learning experiences.
Internalized Classism
A form of classism in which individuals come to believe the negative attributes associated with their social class.
Internalized Homophobia
The process by which sexual minorities accept heterosexist messages; this can hinder their sexual identity development.
Internalized Racism
The taking in of majority beliefs about minority groups that will cause the minority group to believe stereotypes concerning itself, resulting in low self-esteem, feelings of worthlessness, and lowered motivation levels.
Internal Validity
The degree to which changes in the DV are due to the effects of the IV.
International Association of Addiction and Offender Counselors (IAAOC)
A division of ACA that was chartered in 1974 to promote suitable services for and treatment of clients addressing these issues and also to forward this counseling specialization by endorsing ongoing research, training, advocacy, prevention, and intervention related to these groups.
International Association of Marriage nad family Counselors (IAMFC)
A division of ACA that encourages leadership and distinction in marriage and family counseling.
International Students
Individuals who leave their home country to pursue higher education in a host country.
Interpersonal Psychoanalysis
A neo-Freudian approach based on the work of Henry Stack Sullivan. Sullivan contended that people’s mental disorders stem from dysfunctional patterns of interpersonal interactions. Consequently, psychoanalysts assist clients by focusing on client relationships and personal interactions rather than past events.
Interpretation
Plays a critical role in psychoanalysis. Psychoanalysts _____ the meaning of clients’ thoughts, behavior, emotions, and dreams to increase their self-awareness and understanding of their unconscious desires.
Interpreting
(1) A counseling skill that involves suggesting possible reasons for client behavior, thoughts, or feelings or helping clients recognize hidden meaning in their actions. (2) A part of assessment process wherein the professional counselor assigns meaning to the data yielded by evaluative producers.
Interquartile Range
The distance between the 75th percentile and the 25th percentile. The interquartile range may be a more accurate estimate of variability when dealing with outliers or extreme values, as it eliminates the top and bottom quartiles.
Interval Scale
Includes all ordinal scale qualities and has equivalent intervals.
Intimate Partner Violence (IPV)
A predominant form of adult domestic violence defined as any behavior that is abusive in nature and used to gain authority over one’s relationship with a partner
Ipsative Assessment
Compares individuals’ test scores to their previous test scores.
IS PATH WARM
A mnemonic method to remember the warning signs of suicide
Item Analysis
A procedure that involves statistically examining test-taker responses to individual test items with the intent to asess the quality of test items as well as the test as a whole.
Item Difficulty
The percentage of test-takers who answer a test item correctly, calculated by dividing the number of individuals who correctly answered the item by the total number of test-takers.
Item Discrimination
The degree to which a test item is able to correctly differentiate test-takers who vary according to the construct measured by the test.
Janis and Mann’s Conflict Model of Decision Making
A decision-making approach that describes how individuals handle stress when making career decisions. The model proposes that stress significantly contributes to the quality of the decision that is made; therefore, high levels of stress can lead to a defective career decision.
Jewish Chronic Disease hospital study
An infamous, unethical research study in which both healthy and unhealthy patients were injected with live cancer cells so that researchers could better understand the impact of cancer on the basis of health status.
Jim Crow Laws
Laws, enacted after slavery ended in 1865, that sought to maintain separate and unequal social and economic situations for Blacks.
Job
A position within an organization or company that requires a specific skill set.
Job Satisfaction
How content individuals are with their jobs.
Job shadowing
A temporary, unpaid experience in which one observes a competent worker and/or work environment to learn more about a career.
Job Training Partnership Act of 1982
Law passed by the US government to address the needs of disadvantaged students, technical education programs, and unemployed workers.
Johari Window
A model used to describe levels of client awareness. These levels are represented by four quadrants: the public self, the blind self, the private self, and the unknown self. The model proposes that when individuals interact with group members, the public, blind, and private selves grow while the unknown self decreases.
Joining
Imitating the manner, style, affective range, or content of a family’s communications for purposes of solidifying the therapeutic alliance.
Joint Committee on testing Practices
Disbanded in 2007 afte republishing several documents concerning testing standards in educational, psychological, and counseling fields.
C.G. Jung
Swiss psychiatrist who was a follower of Freud but eventually broke those ties after disagreements over some of the central tenets of Freud’s psychoanalytic theory
Jungian Analytic Psychology
Psychoanalytic theory originating from the ideas of Carl Jung; focuses on the role of the larger culture, spirituality, dreams, and symbolism in understanding the human psyche.
Justice
A principle according to which counselors will not discriminate against clients and will ensure that all clients receive equal treatment.
Donald Keat
Adapted the BASIC ID for use with children by using the acronym HELPING to indicate the same seven modalities as the BASIC ID.
Kinesics
Involves postures; body movements and positions such as facial expressions, eye contact, and gazes; and touch. Many cultures have norms that dictate the expression of _____.
Lawrence Kohlberg
Proposed a stage theory of moral development that suggests development improvements in cognitive functioning lead to increases in moral development. His theory outlines three levels of development and each level has two stages.
Kolmogorov-Smirnov Z Procedure
A nonparametric statistical test similar to the Mann-Whitney U test but more appropriate to use when samples are smaller than 25 participants.
John Krumboltz
Developed the social learning theory of career counseling.
Krumboltz’s Social Learning Career Theory
A career decision making theory that focuses on the learning process and emphasizes the role of behavior and cognitions in career decision making.
Kruskal-Wallis Test
A nonparametric statistical test analogous to an ANOVA and used when there are three or more groups per IV as well as an ordinal - scaled DV
Elisabeth Kubler-Ross
A Swiss-born psychiatrist know for her work on grief.
Kurtosis
The degree of peakedness of a distribution.
Labor Market
Involves a geographic location where workers compete for paid work and employers compete for qualified workers.
Laissez-Faire
A group leadership style in which the group leader takes little or no leadership/responsibility for the group agenda, goals, or rules.
Language development
_________ has been conceptualized through three different theoretical approaches: learning theory, nativist, interactional.
Latent Content
The symbolism in dreams that is harder to understand and interpret.
Law of Effect
Introduced by Edward L. Thorndike. Proposes that if a response to stimuli results in a satisfying state/reward, the response is likely to be repeated in a similar situation. ON the other hand, a response that results in an unpleasant consequence is unlikely to be repeated again.
Arnold Lazarus
Created multimodal therapy.
Learning
A relatively permanent change in behavior or thinking resulting from an individual’s experiences.
Least Restrictive Environment
A principle that mandates that students, as much as possible remain in regular classrooms if their needs can be met there with only limited accommodation.
Leisure
Engaging in activities as a means of passing time; leisure activities are often referred to as hobbies
Daniel Levinson
American-born psychologist who studied adult male development and presented a combination task/stage theory.
Kurt Lewin
Credited with the invention of training groups which gave rise to the encounter and sensitivity groups of the 1960s and 1970s. His research resulted in the identification of predictable stages of group work and specific change markers for individual clients.
Liability
A principle that holds that professional counselors have the legal obligation to act with due care in professional practice
Liability Insurance
A form of insurance that is designed to provide protection from third-party claims arising from unintentional injuries or damages to a client
Libel
Defamation through writing
Licensure
The process by which a government agency grants a counselor to practice and/or render specific counseling services. A license protects the public by ensuring that only qualified professionals can legally provide counseling services.
Life-Career rainbow
A concept developed by Donald Super to illustrate how a person’s six major life roles can vary over his or her lifetime.
LIfe Script
A term created by Eric Berne that refers to a script individuals develop at a young age based on their interactions with others, which forms a blueprint for future interactions with people.
Lifespan Life-space Career theory
Developmental theory of Donald Super that assumes individuals engage in a lifelong process of career development; includes five developmental stages and 16 substages that extend from birth to death.
Lifestyle Analysis
An adlerian technique that is used to interview clients about early-life memories, perceptions of their relationships with their parents and siblings, family dynamics, experiences in school and society, and beliefs about themselves.
Life theme
A store of personal meaning that provides an individual with a sense of purpose in his or her vocational work.
Likert Scale
commonly used to measure attitudes or opinions; typically includes a statement regarding the concept in question followed by choices that range from Strongly Agree to Strongly Disagree.
Eric Lindemann
A pioneer in the development of crisis models, who observed that mental health professionals can help those affected by traumatic events to grieve and mourn properly, preventing further mental health complications.
Linking
A counseling technique used in group therapy to connect member themes, issues, and similarities to facilitate shared perspectives, commonalities, and goals.
Live Observation
Occurs when supervisors meet privately with supervisees to discuss particular cases, meet with supervisees in a group format, watch videotapes of supervisee counseling sessions, and/or actually sit in during a supervisee session with a client.
Locus of Control
The degree of control an individual believes he or she has over his or her environment.
Locus of Responsibility
Who or what is accountable for events that occur in an individual’s life
Jane Loevinger
A developmental psychologist who proposed 10 stages of ego development, which stressed the internalization of social norms and the maturing conscience in personality development.
Logotherapy
An existential approach developed by Victor Frankl that focuses on individuals’ search for meaning in their lives.
Longitudinal Design Studies
A research method that involves repeated observations of a population over long periods of time.
Long-TermMemory
Enables an individual to store a large amount of information for relatively permanent amounts of time, depending on how efficiently the person learned the information.
Konrad Lorenz
Carried out a famous set of experiments on imprinting, the process by which a duck or gosling attaches to the first moving object it encounters shortly after hatching.
Low-Context Communication
A style of communication that values the explicit, literal meaning of a word.
Machismo
A traditional latin american gender role, in which males are competitive, powerful, and decision makers and breadwinners for the family.
Maintenance
A behaviorist term that refers to a clients’ ability to perform desired behaviors without continual reinforcement or help from others.
Major Life activity
Walking, seeing, hearing, speaking, breathing, working, performing manual tasks, learning, and caring for oneself.
Making the Rounds
A technique used in group counseling in which members take turns sharing their perspectives on a given focused topic.
Male Privilege
The unearned societal benefits afforded to men based on being male.
Malpractice
Occurs when professional counselors fail to follow accepted professional standards and do not provide the expected standard of care, resulting in injury to the client.
Mandatory Ethics
The minimum standards that a counseling professional must adhere to in order to practice in an ethical manner.
Manifest Content
The symbolism in dreams with meaning that is easily perceived.
Manipulation
A challenging group member behavior that typically stems from the ned for control and anger and promotes group tension and conflict.
Mann-Whitney U Test
A nonparametric statistical test that compares two groups on a variable that is ordinally scaled. The test is analogous to a parametric independent t-test.
Marathon Group
A type of group therapy used in the 1960s and 1970s that involved meeting together for extended periods of time, usually between 24 and 48 consecutive hours, throughout which members were expected to become more authentic and engage in true self-disclosure.
Marginalization Model
a model of acculturation in which individuals reject cultural values and customs of both cultures.
Marianisma
A traditional Latin American gender role, in which females are nurturing, emotional, and sexually pure.
Marriage and family Therapist
Works with individuals, couples, and families from a systems theory perspective, helping clients develop more effective patterns of interaction with significant others and family members.
Masculinity
The features typically affiliated with a male, such as aggression, rationality, competitiveness, and independence.
Abraham Maslow
A humanistic theorist known for the development of the hierarchy of needs.
Maximal Performance Test
A type of assessment that yields information regarding the client’s best attainable score/performance.
Rollo May
An American psychologist who was a leader in the existential counseling approach. He studied the concept of anxiety in depth, noticing that it often interferes with people’s ability to accomplish goals
Mean
The arithmetic average of a set of scores.
Measurement
The process of defining and estimating the magnitude of human attributes and behavioral expressions.
Med-Arb
uses both mediation and arbitration to resolve conflict
Median
The middlemost score when scores are ordered consecutively.
Mediation
The use of an objective, uninvolved person to help with conflict resolution with he goal of working toward determining specific desires and good solutions.
Mental Disorder
A syndrome characterized by clinically significant disturbance in an individual’s cognition, emotional regulation, or behavior that reflects a dysfunction in the psychological, biological, or developmental processes underlying mental functioning.
Mental Health Practitioner
A person trained to treat individuals with mental health issues and mental illnesses.
Mental Measurements Yearbook
An informational resource that provides assessment information on commercially available instruments.
Mental Status Exam
Used by professional counselors to obtain a snapshot of a client’s mental symptoms and psychological state.
George A. Merrill
A pioneer and forerunner in career guidance. He developed a curriculum that combined academic instruction with technical and vocational training.
Mestizo
A person who is born of Native American and Caucasian parents
Meta-Analysis
Involves statistically comparing the results across several similar studies for particular outcome or dependent variables.
Microaggression
INvolves insults and aggressive acts against minorities. ____ is a subtle form of racism and is often automatic and unconscious.
Midbrain
Portion of the brain that connects the hindbrain and forebrain, controls eye muscles, and relays auditory and visual information to the brain’s centers for higher level thinking.
Milan Systemic Family Counseling
A model of family counseling, developed by the Milan group in italy, that focuses on exploring family members’ perceptions of each other and their interactional patterns, as well as asking questions to increase their awareness of unhealthy family behaviors.
Milgram Obedience Study
An infamous, unethical research study in which Stanley Milgram sought to investigate blind obedience.
Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy
A cognitive approach that integrates elements of CBT with mindfulness-based stress reduction to reduce the risk of relapse in clients with reoccurring depression
Minnesota Model
A forceful confrontation-based counseling model
Minnesota Point of View
A career guidance theory considered a directive counseling approach, derived by Edmund Williamson from the work of Frank Parsons. It proposes that counselors should share their wisdom with clients to help them reach a career decision.
Minor Consent Laws
State laws that allow minors of a certain age to consent to various community health services, including mental health treatment, without parental consent
Salvador Minuchin
Developed structural family counseling
Miracle Question
A technique used in SFBT to help clients begin to think about how to solve their problems. usually, the question is some variation of “If a miracle happened and you woke up to find that your problem was solved, what would be different?”
Mixed-Method Research
Blends or mixes designs from quantitative and qualitative research.
Mode
The most frequently occurring score.
Modeling
Demonstration of a particular skill or behavior so that it can be learned and passed on.
Model Minority Myth
The common perception that Asian Americans have excelled in US society and experience few difficulties in relation to adjustments.
Model of Adult Transitions
Developed by Hopson and Adams, this model outlines seven developmental stages that conceptualize how individuals handle crises.
Modern Classism
A theory of classism that proposes those of lower status may exhibit classism as well as those of upper status.
Monochromic time
An orientation toward time in a linear fashion
Monopolizing
Occurs when group members demonstrate behaviors such as neediness, demandingness, excessive talkativeness, and control through a focus on the self.
Moral Development
The emergent process of distinguishing right from wrong, and acting in accordance with those distinctions.
J.L. Moreno
Created the Theater of Spontaneity, the earliest form of psychodrama
Motivational Interviewing
A counseling approach used in addiction counseling that is rooted in person-centered principles yet is distinctly directive.
MRI Interactional Family Therapy
A strategic family therapy approach developed by Jay Haley. ___ encourages the exploration of family interactional patterns to understand and effectively resolve family issues.
Mulatto
A person with both White and African lineages
Multicultural Counseling
The awareness and incorporation into the counseling process of diverse cultural identities.
Multigenerational Transmission Process
In Bowen family systems therapy, a process by which family emotional patterns and levels of differentiation are transferred and maintained over generations.
Multimodal Therapy
A form of technical eclecticism developed by Arnold Lazarus. BASIC ID is used.
Multiple Analysis of Covariance (MANCOVA)
A statistical test similar to an ANCOVA but involving multiple DVs
MULTIPLE ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE (manova)
A statistical test similar to an ANOVA but involving multiple racial lineages
Myelination
Insulation of neurons to enhance speed of neural transmissions.
MBTI
A personal inventory based on Carl Jung’s personality theory.
Myers- riggs Type Theory
A psychological theory derived from the work of Carl Jung by Katharine Briggs and Isabel Myers.
Narrative Career Counseling
This theory, based on the principles of social constructivism, views a client’s career as a story that includes a client’s past, present and future career development. Therapy focuses on restoring the client’s vocational story.
Narrative Therapy
A postmodern and social constructionist approach developed by White & Epston; concerned with how individuals author their lives, proposing that people construct stories about themselves and their lives.
National Association for College Admission Counseling (NACAC)
The professional association for individuals who work in the college admission specialization
National Board for Certified Counselors (NBCC)
A credentialing organization for professional counselors seeking certification.
National Career Development Association (NCDA)
A division of ACA that promotes career development throughout the lifespan.
National Counselor Examination
An exam that a counselor must pass to receive the NCC credential.
National Defense Education Act (NDEA) of 1958
Passed in response to the Soviet Union’s launching of Sputnik; sought to expand K-12 counselor education programs by offering reimbursement to programs that offered counselor training institutes and stipends to graduate students.
National Employment Counseling Association (NECA)
A professional association charted by ACA in 1966 to make strides in the field of employment counseling by providing members with helpful resources, promoting research and knowledge related to effective career counseling techniques and tools to best serve job seekers and society, staying abreast of legislation affecting employment counselors, and creating a community in which professionals can network and share ideas.
National REhabilitation Counseling Association (NRCA)
A division of ACA founded in 1958 to help individuals become as independent and self-reliant as possible through counseling interventions and advocacy.
National Training Laboratory (NTL)
A professional organization that offers a certificate program for business professionals and a master’s degree in organizational development.
National Vocational Guidance Association (NVGA)
The first career-guidance organization, it worked to legitimize and increase the number of guidance counselors by offering credentialing.
Naturalistic study
A type of study in which the researcher observes and documents a behavior or phenomenon in its natural setting.
Nature v. Nurture
A controversial debate concerning the importance of innate qualities versus environment characteristics in determining individual differences in human development.
Nazi Medical War Crimes
involved exploiting and deceiving prisoners during WWII in Nazi Germany to understand how the human body would react to various conditions
Needs Assessment
The systematic process for identifying gaps between what is and what should be in a program. It allows the professional counselor to explore the target population’s perception of the problem and determine whether needs are currently being met by an exiting program.
Negative Reinforcement
Occurs when the removal of a stimulus increases the likelihood that a behavior will occur
Neglect
the most prevalent type of abuse, involves not taking care of a child’s needs
Negligence
Occurs when professional counselors fail to use reasonable care and/or protect a client from foreseeable harm, resulting in injury to the client
Negotiation
A form of conflict resolution that involves compromise by individuals
NEO Personality Inventory - Revised
Commonly used to measure the big five in clients
Neutrality
In Milan family counseling, the objective position that counselors adhere to when working with families.
Nigrescence
A racial identity model that provides a description of stages that Blacks experience as they come to understand and embrace their Black identity.
No Child Left Behind Act of 2001
Aims to improve the quality of US schools by increasing the accountability standards of states, school districts, and requiring states to develop and administer assessments in basic skills to all students
Nominal Scale
Classifies data without respect for order or equal interval units
Nonexperiemental Research Designs
A type of quantitative research design that is intended to observe an outline the properties of a variable. No intervention is involved, and thus no variables or conditions are manipulated.
Nonmaleficence
The foundational principle upon which counselors operate: to do no harm to clients.
nonparametric Statistics
Statistical tests that are used when researchers are only able to make a few assumptions about the distribution of scores in the underlying population.
Nonprobability Sampling
A quantitative sampling method that typically involves accessible, convenient samples and does not use randomization.
Nonstandardized Tests
These tests allow for variability and adaptation in test administration, scoring, and interpretation. They do not permit an individuals score to be compared to a norm group.
Normal Curve Equivalent
A type of standardized score that ranges from 1 to 99 and has a mean of 50 and an SD of 21.06
Normal Distribution
A distribution that forms a bell-shaped curve, with nearly all scores falling close to the average and very few scores falling toward the extremes of the distribution.
Norm-Referenced Assessment
A test in which an individual’s core is compared to the average score of the test-taking group
Norms
(1) The rules for individual member and group behavior, communicating to members what is and is not socially acceptable within the group environment. (2) The typical score/performance against which all other test scores are evaluated.
Nuclear Family Emotional System
The basic emotional unit of a family system; formed on the basis of the parental subsystem’s degree of differentiation.
Null Hypothesis
A statement that there is no relationship between an IV and a DV
Nuremburg Code
A set of ethical principles for research using humans; resulted from the Nuremberg trials following WWII. Guarantees research participants voluntary consent and right to terminate at any time.
OARES
An acronym for a counseling model that outlines the motivational interviewing techniques.
Objective Personality Tests
Standardized self-report instruments that often use multiple choice or true/false format to assess various aspects of personality to identify personality types, personality traits, personality states, and self concept
Objective TEsts
Tests that include questions that have one correct answer. They provide consistency in administration and scoring to ensure freedom from the examiner’s own beliefs or biases.
Object Relations
A neo-Freudian theory that maintains individuals’ personalities are developed through early parent-child interactions. Therefore, healthy personality development is dependent on satisfying interpersonal relationships.
Observation
Includes member and leader feedback to the group
Observational Learning
Learning that occurs as a function of observing, retaining, and, in some situations, replicating novel behavior executed by others.
Occupation
The primary activity that engages one’s time. often, _____ refer to a group of similar positions/jobs found across different organizations and industries.
Occupational Information
Facts about a position, job task, career field, or industry used to assist clients in making decisions regarding future employment.
Occupational Information Network (O*NET)
An electronic source of occupational information that houses current information and skill requirements for 1,170 occupations.
Occupational Outlook Handbook (OOH)
A US government source for career information that provides occupational information on 270 broad occupations
Occupational stress
The chronic psychological and physiological strain that results from ongoing job-related stressors. can lead to burnout
One Drop Rule
A hierarchical social system that implied being Black was unfortunate, and as a result those possessing one drop of Black blood were labeled as Black and of a lower social status.
One-Stop Delivery System
US employment service program that provides a variety of labor exchange services under one roof in easy-to-find locations
Open Groups
Leaders allow members to enter and leave at various points while continuing a primary group focus
Operant Conditioning
Theory of learning developed by B.F. Skinner. Maintains that all learning is contingent on the consequence of a particular behavior, and so uses consequences to modify the occurrence and type of behavior
Opinion Seeking
Involves self- or other-disclosure of group member values in relation to a group task. Often, members want to know what others believe or value in order to gain insight into others’ world views.
Oppression
The condition of being subject to a group of people who have access to social power and authority.
Ordeal
A paradoxical technique that asks clients to complete an undesirable but health-promoting task before participating in the worrisome behavior.
Ordinal Scale
type of scale that classifies and assigns rank order to data
Organization
According to Piaget, one’s ability to order and classify new information
Outcome Evaluation
A type of program evaluation that measures the effectiveness of a program at the conclusion of the program
Out-Group
The group to which an individual feels least similar.
Outlier
An extreme data point that distorts the mean by inflating or deflating the typical score.
Outside Witnesses
A technique used in solution focused therapy that involves bringing in family, friends, or even previous clients to help current clients gain outside perspectives on themselves
Overcorrection
An aversive behavioral technique that requires the client to return the environment to its original condition prior to the undesirable behavior and then to make the environment better
Pacing
The pace or rate at which the group process moves
Pairing
Used in group therapy to form smaller groups within the larger group to engage in activities or focused sharing
Panel Study
A study that looks at the same individuals over time
Paradoxical Intention
A therapeutic technique in which counselors prescribe the symptom.
Paralanguage
The nonverbal cues used in communication to covey meaning and emotions
Paraphrasing
A basic counseling skill that involve repeating back the essence of what a client has said in the counselor’s own words to convey understanding , check the accuracy of the counselor’s comprehension, and summarize the significant elements that have been disclosed by the client
Parenting Styles
Method fo bringing up children, of which four have been proposed: authoritarian, authoritative, permissive, and uninvolved
Frank Parsons
Father of vocational guidance; known for his trait and factor approach
Participant Observation
A role that researchers may play in observational research by which they both actively participant in the experience they are studying and observe the experience
Participatory Action Research (PAR)
A qualitative research tradition that focuses on change of the participants and researcher as a result of qualitative inquiry. Involves a collaborative approach to problem solving between the researcher and other key stakeholders.
Ivan Pavlov
A russian physiologist best known for first describing the phenomenon of classical conditioning through his studies on the salivation of dogs
Robert Peck
Psychologist who expanded on the final two stages of Erikson’s psychosocial theory of human development
Peer Mediation
Involves and objective, third-party individual who helps individuals in conflict to negotiate compromise, and problem solve.
Percentage Score
The raw score divided by the number of test items.
Percentile Rank
Indicate the percentage of scores falling at or below a given score.
Performance Assessments
Nonverbal form of assessment that entails minimal verbal communication to measure broad attributes. the client is required to performa task rather than answer questions.
Peripheral Nervous System
The part of the nervous system consisting of a network of nerves that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body
Fritz Perls
A German psychiatrist psychotherapist know for developing gestalt therapy.
Personal Construct Psychology
Theory based on the work of George Kelly that proposes individuals develop constructs to understand how the world works and to anticipate events.
Personal Fable
An egocentric belief by which adolescents believe they are personally unique and exempt from the consequences of risky behaviors.
Personalismo
A value in the Latino culture that refers to the importance of having compassion and caring for those in the community.
Personality Inventories
A group of inventories that identify a person’s unique characteristics and style of relating to others, tasks, and situations.
Personality Typology
Devised by Carl Jung, consists of two attitudes and four functions made up of two pairs.
Personal Unconscious
Jungian term synonymous with Freud’s unconscious.
Person Centered therapy
Another term for the client centered counseling developed by Carl Rogers
Phenomenological Perspective
In client-centered counseling, how counselors approach the clients from the perspective of how the perceive an event rather than the event itself
Phenomenological Philosophy
The notion that a person’s perceptions of an event are more important than the event itself
Phenomenology
A qualitative approach used to discover or describe the meaning or essence of participants lived experience with the goal of understanding individual and collective human experiences for various phenomena.
Physical Abuse
Involves causing injury and harm in the form of bruising, sprained muscles, bones being broken, burns, cuts, being shaken, hit, thrown, asphyxiation, and genital mutilation
Jean Piaget
The Swiss philosopher and scientist known for his theory of cognitive development. His theory descries cognitive development of children.
Pilot Study
Smaller than a full-scale study, designed to assess the feasibility of expanding a small study to a much larger scale.
Placebo Effect
The positive effects of a treatment felt by participants even though no treatment is actually administered.
Planned Happenstance
The ability to capitalize on a chance event that is unpredictable. John Krumboltz maintained that exercising _______ would lead to an increase in career options as well as opportunities.
Planned Theme Group
A group that is planned around a content theme and focuses on helping members resolve problems in a specific area.
Play Therapy
A therapeutic approach that uses play to help the client to give a voice to and work through their concerns with the assistance of the counselor.
Polychromic Time
The value of time as secondary to relationships among people.
Positive Blame
A technique used in SFBT to reinforce clients’ capabilities when successfully making a change or engaging in a behavior that brings them closer to their goal.
Positive Connotations
Similar to reframing; counselors attach positive motives to a family member’s problematic behavior.
