Glossary Terms 2 Flashcards
Positivism
A philosophical paradigm that proposes an objective truth exists and can only be understood if directly observable.
Post Hoc Analysis
Allows examination of every possible pairing of group means for a particular independent variable after one has concluded that there are main effect in an ANOVA
Post-Positivism
A philosophical paradigm that proposes truth can only be approximated because of inherent errors present when measuring reality.
Poverty
The struggle to meet and maintain basic needs such as food, clothing, and shelter
Power
(1) In a group context, having control over the resources the group values or desires. (2) In hypothesis testing, the likelihood of detecting a significant relationship between variables when one is really there
Power Negotiations
A form of conflict resolution that occurs when individuals vie to have the strongest influence on the outcome and may involve deceitful tactics like relaying false information and cheating.
Power Tests
Assessments that are designed to prevent test-takers from attaining perfect scores by including difficult test items that few individuals can answer correctly.
Practice Effects
The phenomenon of research participants knowing what to expect and learning something from a pretest that helps to improve their performance on future tests.
Preconscious Mind.
That Part of consciousness that combines characteristics of both the conscious and unconscious minds
Pre-experiemental Designs
A type of experimental design that does not use random assignment
Prejudice
Formulation of preconceived opinions or judgments about an individual or group without sufficient knowledge
Prescribing the Symptom
In strategic family counseling, the counselor tells clients to keep engaging in their troublesome behavior; by following the counselor’s advice, clients recognize that they are choosing to perpetuate the problem.
Pretend Technique
Encourages clients to simulate their symptoms in order to realize that they are able to exert some control over what they say and do, as well as over the outcome of the situation
Primary Reinforcers
Reinforcers that satisfy a primary need
Privacy Policy
For HIPAA, guidelines dictating with whom protected health information may be shared
Privilege
The ability of an individual to receive benefits, which are not as readily available to others, as a result of his or her membership in a dominant group
Privileged Communication
A legal term that protects counselors from having to reveal information about a client during a legal proceeding.
Proactive Inhibition
A loss of memory that occurs when old information interferes with newly learned information
Probability sampling
A type of quantitative sampling that involves sampling a known population using randomization
Problem Externalization
A technique used in narrative therapy in which the counselor seeks to help clients distance themselves from their problems. Problems, in relation to clients, are seen as separate, outside entities.
Problem-Saturated Stories
A term used in narrative counseling to refer to self-narratives that are harmful and detrimental to client well-being
Process Evaluation
A type of program evaluation that focuses on the process of implementing the program to evaluate its progress at various points
Professional Associations
Counseling organizations that seek to further the counseling profession by uniting members through a shared identity, advocating on behalf of the profession, providing professional development opportunities, and offering access to counseling-related resources
Professional Counselor
A professional who works with individuals and families to overcome developmental and unexpected life changes in order to facilitate client wellness and personal growth.
Program Goals
Broad statements that indicate how the career intervention program will respond to population’s needs
Program Objectives
Specific, measurable, action-oriented steps that must be attained to accomplish a particular program goal.
Prosocial behavior
Demonstrating a concern for the welfare of others and acting in a way that benefits others
Protected Health Information (PHI)
Individually identifiable health information protected by HIPAA
Proxemics
The physical distance between people as they interact
Psychiatric Nursing
A specialization within the nursing profession that is concerned with the prevention and treatment of psychiatric disorders
Psychiatrist
Trained medical doctors licensed to treat clients with severe mental disorders. Unlike other mental health professionals, psychiatrists are able to prescribe medications, perform physical examinations, and order lab testing for clients
Psychoanalyst
Professionals trained to assist clients in resolving issues through psychoanalysis
Psychodrama
(1) An exercise used in Gestalt therapy that asks clients to act out their internal conflicts and related emotions in order to gain clarity on their unfinished business (2) An approach use din group therapy to bring about mental and emotional catharsis for the purpose of tension release
Psychodynamic Model
One of the earliest theories of family counseling, developed by Nathan Ackerman. This model was based on the key concepts of Freud’s psychoanalytic theory and explore the role of anxiety, defense mechanisms, and unconscious conflicts and desires in the functioning of individuals and families.
Psychoeducational Groups
A group work model that emphasizes skill development through various nonthreatening skill-building exercises but at the same time encourages discussion, sharing, and feedback among members.
Psychological Aging
Categorization of aging based on one’s perception of personal age
Psychological First Aid (PFA)
A crisis response method that focuses first on meeting individuals’ survival needs, then on meeting their psychological needs, and finally on establishing support networks
Psychologist
A mental health professional who specializes in diagnosing and treating emotional disturbances, behavioral problems, and finally on establishing support networks.
Psychosexual Theory
Freud’s theory of personality development
Psychotherapy groups
Groups that are designed to treat those who may be experiencing severe or chronic problems in their lives.
Punctuation
The conviction by individuals that their verbal communication, especially during a conflict, occurs in reaction to someone else
Purposive Sampling
type of sampling used primarily in qualitative research to obtain information rich cases that allow for maximum depth and detail regarding a particular phenomenon
Pushbutton Technique
An Adlerian counseling technique used to teach clients that they play a role in maintaining their problems. specifically, clients are encouraged to focus on their positive feelings rather than negative.
p value
The likelihood of obtaining a result at least as extreme as the one observed assuming the null hypothesis is true
Qualitative Research
A type of research that is concerned with how behavior occurs, uses data that is represented in words rather than numbers, and usually takes the form of interview transcripts, field notes, pictures, video, or artifacts.
Quantitative Research
A type of research that focuses on capturing the relationship between two variables that can be measured numerically.
Quasi-experiemntal Designs
A type of experimental design used when it is impossible or inappropriate to randomly assign participants to group.
Questioning
(1) A basic counseling skill in which counselors ask open-ended and closed-ended questions to obtain further information from clients, often for clarification or to encourage deeper exploration of topics (2) An individuals curiosity about his or her sexual orientation
Quid Pro Quo
The propensity of individuals to treat others as they are treated.
Race
A social and political classification that identifies individuals by distinguishing physical characteristics such as skin color, facial features, hair texture, or eye shape
Racial Identity
A sense of belongingness and communality that is derived from one’s identification with one or more racial groups
Racial Interaction Theory
Developed by Helms, this theory conceptualized how whites and POC, at various racial identity development statuses, might interact and if those interactions would be maladaptive
Racism
Involves the belief that a group of people are inferior to one’s own group due to recognized or perceived differences in physical characteristics.
Rand Assignment
Involves assigning participants to different groups, such as a treatment or control group, to ensure that groups are equal and that any systematic group differences are due to change
Random Selection
Involves selecting participants from a population so that every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected
Range
The most basic indicator of variability, computed by subtracting the largest value from the smallest value
Rating Scales
Used to evaluate the quantity of an attribute
REBT
A counseling theory developed by Albert Ellis, which addressees the relationship between thinking and emotion
Rational Emotive Imagery
A technique used in REBT to assist clients in disputing hteir irrational beliefs. Clients are asked to imagine their worst fears and to stay with the difficult, painful emotions that surface.
Ratio Scale
A scale that possess the qualities of nominal ordinal and interval scales and has an absolute zero point
Raw Score
A score that has not been converted into a derived score
Reactive Theories
Theories of human development that propose that people are passive and react to environmental stimuli to accommodate to changes
Readiness Tests
A group of criterion-referenced achievement assessments that indicate the minimum level of skills needed to move from one grade level to the next
Reality Distortion
Occurs when a therapeutic group provides an example of social reality that is not achievable in the outside world
Reality Therapy
A type of therapy, based on choice theory whose basic premise is that people make choices in order to meet their five basic needs
Reciprocal Inhibition
A principle developed by Joseph Wolpe that assumes a person cannot engage in two mutually exclusive events simultaneously. _____ is used in systematic desensitization.
Reciprocity
Allows a counselor who is licensed in one state to work in another state without having to reapply for licensure or fulfill additional requirements.
Recognition
One of the four stages in the spiritual identity development model
Recycling
A term used by Donald Super to refer to the idea that an individual can re-enter a developmental stage they have been through before
Redundancy Principle
A family’s tendency to interact with each other in the same way.
Reflecting
A basic counseling skill that involves verbal responses to clients that indicate that the professional counselor understands their emotions, thoughts, or the meaning behind their disclosures
Reframing
A strategic family therapy technique that involves interpreting a family’s situation in a new way to encourage family members to view their problem in a more favorable light
Rehabilitation Act of 1973
Prohibits discrimination against persons with disabilities in federally sponsored programs
Reinforcement Schedules
Dictate when and how often a behavior is reinforced
Reinforcers
In operation conditioning, stimuli that increase the likelihood a behavior will reoccur
Relabeling/Reframing
A strategic family therapy technique that involves interpreting a family’s situation in a new way to encourage family members to view their problem in a more favorable light.
Relational Approaches
Propose that relationships play an important role int he career development and decision-making processes of children and adolescents
Reliability
Consistency of scores attained by the same person on different administrations of the same test
Reliability Coefficient
A measure of reliability of a set of scores on a test
Religion
The institutionalized expression of an organized set of beliefs and ritualized practices that guide a person or group’s understanding of reality
Replacement Needs
Occur in the labor market when worker are needed to replace those who have left the workforce due to retirement, returning to school, assuming household and child-raising duties, or choosing not to work.
Research Hypothesis
A testable, concise statement involving the expected relationship between two or more variables
Research Question
A statement that identifies what a research study hopes to examine
Resilience
An individual’s ability to adapt to negative life conditions or spring back form adverse situations in order to return to a positive level of functioning
Resiliency Factors
Assist an individual in overcoming risk factors and maintaining positive functioning in spite of adverse circumstances
Response Cost
A behavioral technique that reduces undesirable behaviors by removing a positive reinforcement
Responsibilities of Users of Standardized Tests (RUST)
A policy statemtn published by the Association for Assessment in Counseling and Education (AACE) to ensure counselors use standardized tests with clients in an accurate, fair, and responsible manner
Restructuring
An intervention that involves actively working to change the structure of a family system
Retrieval theory
Asserts that information is held permanently in long term storage and that forgetting is the result of insufficient cues that fail to retrieve the information
Retroactive Inhibition
A loss of memory that occurs when new information interferes with information previously learned
Reverse Role-Playing
A technique used in REBT to help clients dispute their irrational beliefs
Rights negotiations
A form of conflict resolution that involves the legality of what is right and uses norms, policies, and rules
Risk factors
Include characteristics that place individuals at high risk of developing mental disorders, academic problems, or personal-social difficulties
Ritual Prescriptions
Paradoxical assignments that indicate certain actions to be taken on specific days and times by particular family members. The goal of rituals is to help families try new ways of behaving and interacting.
Carl Rogers
An American psychologist who founded the client-centered approach to counseling
Role
Broadly refers to a set of interconnected behaviors, rights, and obligations that are associated with a particular social situation
Role Ambiguity
Occurs when a group member is not sure of the role expectations or behavior requirements they should fulfill
Role Conflict
Occurs when group members experience conflicting demands of various roles such as when a member who prefers to avoid emotional expression is encouraged to self-disclose reactions to emotionally lade group content and process; that is, the roles a member plays come into conflict with each other
Role Differentiation
In group counseling, the process of group members adopting different roles within the group
Role Playing
A behavioral technique used in counseling in which the counselor demonstrates specific skills and applications
Role Salience
The importance individuals assign to each life role throughout their lifetime
Rules
A term used in general systems theory to refer to the unique family rules every family establishes and expects its members to abide by.
Sarcasm
An attempt to mask and not express anger
Satisfaction
In the theory of work adjustment, an employee’s contentment with the work environment.
Satisfactoriness
In the theory of work adjustment, the employer’s satisfaction with an individual’s job performance.
Virginia Satir
An American psychotherapist who believed in the innate goodness of humans, their desire to grow and learn, and their ability to change.She identified four types of dysfunctional family communication patterns.
Saturation
In qualitative research, data collection reaching a point of redundancy – that is, the point where no new data refute findings of previously collected data.
Saving Face
A cultural value commonly endorsed by Asian Americans whereby an individual’s behaviors are seen as being reflective of the family and thus one should protect the honor of the family
Scale
A collection of items or questions that combine to form a composite score on a single variable
Scaling Questions
A technique used in narrative therapy and SFBT that asks clients to approximate their progress
Schema
A mental structure that processes or integrates experiences, information, or perceptions
Schlossberg’s Transition Theory
proposes four different types of transitions that can occur throughout an individual’s life: anticipated, unanticipated, chronic hassles, and nonevents. Maintains that an individual’s willingness and ability to deal with transitions depends on the situation, self, support, and strategies
School-to-Work Act of 1994
Provides all students with equal opportunities to participate in programs that combine academic and occupational education, combine school-based learning with work based learning, and prepare students for postsecondary education
Screening and Selection Measures
Help leaders assess potential member attitudes toward groups, assess prosocial attitudes and problematic group member interpersonal behaviors, and select group members
Scriptotherapy
A cognitive technique, commonly referred to as therapeutic writing, through which clients are asked to write down their thoughts for clarity and self reflection
Secondary Reinforcers
Reinforcers associated with a primary need (e.g., a token that can be traded in for food)
Seek Unique Outcomes
A technique used in SFBT that asks clients to identify times when their problems were not present or were less pronounced
Self-Categorization
An important piece of social identity theory, in which the self is seen as an object to be classified into membership in a social group that gives worth to the person
Self-Disclosure
a counseling skill that involves sharing personal information with clients to help connect with the client, give feedback, or provide the client with alternative perspectives or ideas
Self-Efficacy
term developed by Albert Bandura that refers to an individual’s confidence in his or her ability to perform a given behavior or accomplish a given task
Self-Instructional Training
A technique used in cognitive-behavior modification to teach clients how to alter their maladaptive thoughts and behavior in order to replace negative self-talk with self-enhancing cognitions
Self-Narratives
IN narrative therapy, the stories clients construct about themselves and their lives
Self-psychology
A neo-Freudian approach developed by Heinz Kohut that asserts psychological disorders result from unsatisfied developmental needs
Self Talk
the internal messages people give themselves
Semantic Differential
A scaling technique rooted in the belief that people think dichotomously and commonly includes the statement of an affective question followed by a scale that asks test-takers to place a mark between two dichotomous adjectives
Semi-Structured Interviews
Interviews that use pre established questions and topic areas; however, the professional counselor can customize the interview by modifying questions, altering the interview sequence, or adding follow-up questions.
Sensory Memory
The ability to retain environmental stimuli detected by sensory receptors
Separation
A legal process that allows couples to remain legally married while living separate lives
separation Anxiety
Occurs developmentally in most infants, ages 12 to 24 months, and involves extreme distress when they are separated from a primary caregiver
Separation Model
A model of acculturation in which individuals refuse to adapt to cultural values outside of their own cultural values
Setting Tone
The group leader setting a style of interaction for group members to follow
Sex
an individual is biologically make or female as determined by hormones, genetics, and physical makeup
Sex Chromosomal Diseases
Genetic disorders that involves some genetic anomaly occurring on the sex-determining pair of chromosomes and usually affecting male or female characteristic displays or sexual reproduction
Sexism
The oppression of individuals on the basis of their gender, and in particular the belief that males are the superior gender and thus more competent and deserving of power
Sex Role
abilities derived from an individual’s biological makeup and physiological functioning
Sexual Abuse
Occurs when any adult in a position of power engages in sexual activity with a minor
Sexual Exploitation
Forcing a child into prostitution or pornography
Sexual Identity
Encompasses physical identity, gender identity, social sex role identity, and sexual orientation identity.
Sexual Minority Individuals
LGBTQIA individuals
Sexual Orientation
An individual’s consistent attachment and sexual atraction to members of the same, opposite, or both genders
Shame Attack Exercise
A technique used in REBT that involves asking clients to participate in an activity that normally creates anxiety in order to help them realize that the outcomes are not nearly as embarrassing or devastating as they imagine
Shaping
Gradually changing an individual’s existing behavior by reinforcing responses that are similar to the desired response.
Short-Term Memory
A temporary information storage system that allows information to be retained for seconds to minutes.
Significance Level
A threshold used for rejecting the null hypothesis in hypothesis testing
Single-Subject Research Designs (SSRD)
Used to measure how either receiving treatment or not receiving treatment affects a single subject or a group of subjects who can be treated as a single unit
Situational Poverty
Occurs when lack of resources is due to an extenuating circumstance
Skeleton Keys
Using techniques that have worked before and, as a result, may work in a variety of different contexts and situations
Skewness
An asymmetrical distribution in which the data points do not cluster systematically around a mean
B.F. Skinner
Developed the theory of operant conditioning
Slander
Defamation through a spoken statement
SLAP
A helpful acronym to remind counselors of the major areas covered during a suicide risk assessment
S.R. Slavson
Founder of the American Group Psychotherapy Association. He also provided group therapy to children and concluded that it was as effective as individual counseling
Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT)
Theory that maintains that one’s belief in one’s own ability to complete tasks and accomplish goals plays a significant role in vocational interests and potential career choices
Social Constructionism
A theory that refers to an individual making meaning of knowledge within a social context
Social Identity Theory
Theory, rooted in social psychology, created to understand discrimination within groups
Social Influence Model
Model formulated by Stanley Strong on the basis of social psychology in the 1960s; asserts that if counselors are viewed as having expertise and being attractive, they will have greater influence on the client
Social Justice
The belief in an equitable world for all individuals and the corresponding goal of promoting fairness by addressing privilege and oppression
Social Learning Theory
Developed by Albert Bandura; based on the notion that learning occurs through observation, imitation, and modeling
Social Worker
A professional who works to address and alleviate social injustice
Societal Regression
Occurs when a society that is experiencing too much stress regresses in its level of differentiation
Sociodramatic Play
Maintains that play is an imitation of adult tasks, facilitating mature social interactions between children
Socioeconomic Status (SES)
The hierarchical distinctions between cultural groups in society
Sociogram
A graphical representation of group member interaction patterns that are used to display member relationships and educate group members about the intricacies of group dynamics.
Sociometric Test
A study of actual behavior
Sociometry
Gauges the extent of relationship among people r groups, or how people relate to one another, via a sociogram, which is a scientific, visual way to analyze and display these relationships
SFBT
a counseling theory developed by Steve de Shazer that is based on the assumption that all people possess the ability and resources to solve their problems
soul
The quintessential nature of a person
Speed Tests
Assessments that are designed to prevent test-takers from attaining perfect scores by including too many items to answer in the allotted time
Spiritual Bypass
the misuse of spiritual beliefs and practices to avoid addressing problematic psychological, physical, emotional, cognitive, relational, or behavioral issues
Spiritual Identity
The degree of connection individuals have with their spiritual force
Spirituality
A process that involves the continual search for meaning and depends one’s connection to the inner self, others, and the world
Spitting in the Client’s Soup
An Adlerian counseling technique used to point out certain client behaviors so that the behavior no longer seems as desirable to the client
Split-Plot Design
A general category of experimental research designs that involve assessing a general intervention on the whole plot and assessing other treatments to subplots within the whole plot
Splitting
A psychoanalytic term in which object representations are viewed dichotomously
spontaneous content Groups
Groups that do not have planned content themes and are designed to provide personal growth and support
Spontaneous Recovery
In classical conditioning, this occurs when the previously weakened CS/CR connection is re-established very quickly causing the CR to re-emerge
Spurious Correlation
Occurs when a correlation overrepresents or under represents the actual relationship
Stags of Change
A model that conceptualizes the client change process as a series of six progressive stages that develop over time
Structural Violence
The marginalization of individuals, intentionally or unintentionally, by political, economic, and social institutions
Stakeholders
Any individuals involved in or affected by the program
Standard Deviation
The most frequently reported indicator of variability for interval or ratio data
Standard Error of Estimate
A statistic that indicates the expected margin of error in a predicted criterion score due to the imperfect validity of the test
Standard Error of Measurement
A statistic that indicates how scores from repeated administrations of the same instrument to the same individual are distributed around the true score
Standardization
The process of converting raw scores to standard scores by finding the typical score attained by a group of test-takers and comparing future scores to the typical score
Standardized Scores
Compare individual scores to a norm group through the use of formulas that convert the raw score to a new score
Standardized Tests
A type of assessment that is designed to ensure the conditions for administration, test content, scoring procedures, and interpretations are consistent
Standard Occupational Classification System
The classification system used by the O*NET to classify occupations; uses a six-digit code to classify occupations into four levels
Stanine
A type of standard score that divides the normal distribution into nine intervals with a mean of 5 and an SD of 2
Statistical Significance
The cutoff point; any value that exceeds the cutoff point will be noted as statistically significant.
Stimulus Discrimination
In classical conditioning, the absence of the CR when a new stimulus that resembles the original CS is presented.
Stimulus Generalization
In classical conditioning, the tendency for the CS/CR connection to be generalized to other stimuli similar to the original CS
Strategic Family Therapy
Developed by Milton Erickson, this approach emphasizes altering behavior and resolving presenting symptoms rather than helping clients gain insight and personal awareness
Strengths-Based Perspective
A multicultural counseling approach that focuses on honing in and building on client strengths and successes to initiate change
Stress Inoculation Training (SIT)
A process that combines cognitive and behavioral techniques in order to help clients learn how to cope with stress. Clients then begin using these new techniques while imagining stressful situations and are eventually asked to apply them to real-life situations that trigger stress.
Structural Classism
A form of classism that maintains the current status quo or arrangement of classes
Structural Family Counseling
developed by Salvador Minuchin, this approach is concerned with examining and changing the structure and organization of families, including their hierarchies and subsystems
Structural maps
visual representations of a family’s coalitions, alignments, boundaries, and conflicts
Structure
How a family organizes itself
Structured Interview
Interviews that use a series of prestablished questions that cover broad topic areas and are presented in an invariable sequential order during each interview
Subjective Tests
Tests that include open-ended questions having more than one correct answer
Subpoena
A legal document that commands a person to appear in court to serve as a witness or provide the court with certain documents
Subsystems
Distinct and somewhat independent parts of al arger system
Suicide
the intentional or unintentional taking of one’s onwn life
Suicide Assessment
Determining a client’s potential for committing suicide
suicide Lethality
the likelihood that a client will die as a result of suicidal thoughts and behaviors
summarizing
A basic counseling skill that involves condensing the important aspects discussed over a substantial period of time into a succint synopsis
Summative Evaluation
involves the assessment of an entire program to determine the degree to which program goals and objectives have been met
Sum of squares
the sum of the squared deviation scores, computed by subtracting the mean from each data point, squaring each deviation score, and adding them together
Donald Super
One of the first career theorist to develop a lifespan developmental approach to career counseling. he also proposed a career rainbow that repressed the many roles an individual has throughout life.
Superego
In psychoanalysis, the conscience part of an individual’s personality
Superiority Complex
In some individuals, overcompensation for feelings of inferiority
Survey Batteries
A collection of tests that measure individuals’ knowledge across multiple subject areas and, as a result, do not assess any one subject in great depth
Survey Research
A method of collecting quantitative data, in which a research selects a sample of participants and administers a series of questions to them
Symbolic-Expperiential Family Therapy
A family therapy approach developed by Carl Whitaker to help families strike a balance between independence and togetherness and to learn how to interact with each other in a meaningful and natural way, while moving away from the tendency to behave in the same monotonous patterns that led to the dysfunction
Symmetrical Relationships
Relationships in a family between equals. These types of relationships may become competitive because there is not a dominant member
Systematic Desensitization
A technique developed by Joseph Wolpe to treat phobias.
Task Groups
Groups designed around and focused on accomplishing a specific task in an efficient and effective manner.
Tavistok Institute
An organization that promotes interdisciplinary training in group dynamics and leadership coaching for businesses
Tenure
iN the theory of work adjustment, how long an individual will work with a company
Termination Stage
The final stage in group development, which is characterized by closure of group process and the relationships members have established throughout the group experience
Test
A subset of assessment used to yield data regarding an examinee’s responses to test items
Test adaptation
The process of altering a test for a population that differs significantly from the original test population in terms of cultural background and language
Test Bias
Occurs when the properties of a test cause an individual or particular group of individuals to score higher or lower on the test than the average score for the total population
Test Critiques
An informational resource designed to be a companion text to the Tests. Each entry in _______ contains an overview of the assessment, practical applications, and information regarding the instrument’s reliability and validity.
Test Theory
Assumes that test constructs, in order to be considered empirical, must be measurable for quality and quantity; consequently, __________ strives to reduce test error and enhance construct reliability and validity
Test Translation
A process of reducing cultural bias in testing by translating test items into the language spoken by examinees
Tests
An assessment resource that contains information on thousands of assessment instruments in the psychology, education, and business industries
Tests in Print (tip)
A companion to the MMY. Offers a comprehensive listing of all published and commercially available tests in psychology and education, and provides information regarding the test title, intended population, acronym, publication date, author, publisher, foreign adaptations, and references.
Theory-Based Models of Supervision
Extend the basic counseling theories to the supervisory relationship
Theory of Carer Decision Making
Theory developed by Tiedeman and O’Hara; a descriptive approach that proposes two career decision-making stages; anticipating the choice and adjusting to the choice
Theory of Work Adjustment (TWA)
A career development theory developed by Dawis and Lofquist that describes the relationship between individuals and their work environments.
Therapeutic Alliance
The relationship between the client and the professional counselor
Therapeutic Factor
An element, generally created by the group leader or relationships with other members, that improves a group member’s overall condition.
Therapeutic Letters
A technique used in narrative therapy in which the counselor writes letters to the client following counseling sessions. These letters review what was discussed in the session an highlight important moments. the ultimate goal of these letters is to keep the work that occurred during the session going long after the session has ended.
Thick Description
A self-narrative that involves clients’ interpretations of themselves and the labels that are put on them by others
Thin Description
A self-narrative that is imposed on a person by others that the individual then internalizes
Edward Thorndike
Introduced the law of effect, which proposes that if a response to stimuli results in a satisfying state/reward, the response is likely to be repeated
Frederick Thorne
An early proponent of eclectic counseling
Thought Stopping
A cognitive technique used to teach clients how to interrupt a pattern of negative self-statements or thinking; it usually involves the substitution of one thought for another
Thurstone Scale
Measures multiple dimensions of an attitude by asking respondents to express their beliefs through agreeing or disagreeing with item statements
Time-Lag Studies
A type of study commonly used in developmental research; involves replications of previous studies on a modern-day cohort using the same parameters as the previous study
Time-Out
A type of punishment procedure that removes the child from a rewarding context and puts him or her into an alternative context so that he or she is no longer able to receive any kind of positive reinforcement
Token Economy
A behavioral technique that provides clients with rewards for demonstrating desired behavior. A contract is arranged between the counselor and client, which establishes the number of tokens a client will receive in exchange for demonstrating certain behavioral goals.
Tort
An act that results in injury to another person, property, or reputation, entitling the injured party to compensation.
Tracking
A counseling technique that allows the counselor to keep up with and clarify content through verbal clarifications.
Trait and Factor Theory
A career theory heavily influenced by the work of Parsons and Williamson. This theory maintains that an individual must gain self-understanding and knowledge about he world of work, and integrate these understandings in order to choose an occupation that will result in satisfaction and success
Trait and Type career Theories
Also known as person-environment fit theories; assess the traits or characteristics of individuals in order to match them with an occupation that has similar characteristics
Transactional Analysis
A cognitive theory developed by Eric Berne with roots in psychoanalysis. The focus of ______ is on examining how clients interact with others. It is believed that if clients can change their styles of interaction, the result will be improved functioning.
Transactions
The interactions that occur between two or more people.
Trans-Affirmative Approach
Involves the counselor taking on the role of an advocate by being involved politically, teaching the client how to advocate, and rallying for equal community resources.
Transcrisis
Occurs when the traumatic event of an initial crisis is not fully death with and becomes submerged into a client’s subconscious
Transference
A psychoanalytic term used to describe the displacement of emotions from one individual to another
Transformation-Based Negotiations
A form of conflict resolution that deals with promoting empowerment and recognition of involved persons.
Transgender
A term used to describe a broad continuum of individuals who gender identity and roles, to varying degrees, do not conform to cultural norms and expectations associated with their biological sex
Transition Stage
The second group development stage, characterized by the testing of boundaries and power structures that can range from subtle testing to full-blown rebellion and conflict.
Transphobia
Discrimination against transsexual or transgendered individuals, based on their nonalignment with cultural expectations regarding gender and sexuality
Trauma
A long-term crisis for which there is no resolution or balance of stressors and available resources
Trend Study
Involves assessing the general population over time, with new individuals sampled each time data are collected
Triangle
In Bowen family systems therapy, a relationships comprising three people. ______ are created when two family members are experiencing stress and draw in a third to help release the emotional tension.
Tripartite Model of Multicultural Counseling
Outlines three standards that inform multiculturally competent counselors, including self-awareness, knowledge, and skills
Triple Jeopardy
Individuals who are marginalized as a result of having triple minority status
Trustworthiness
The validity or truthfulness of qualitative findings
T Score
A type of standardized score that has an adjusted mean of 50 and an SD of 10
t-Test
Compares two means for one variable
Tuskegee Syphilis study
An infamous, unethical research study in which physicals studying the long term effects of syphilis told 400 African American males with syphilis they were receiving treatment for bad blood. Participants were never informed of their actual diagnosis and, even when penicillin was discovered as a treatment in the 1940s, the participants never received the drug
Type I Error
A type of error associated with hypothesis testing that occurs when a decision is made to reject the null hypothesis when that null hypothesis is in fact true
Type II Error
A type of error associated with hypothesis testing that occurs when a decision is made to retain the null hypothesis that should have been rejected because the null hypothesis was indeed false
Typical Performance test
a type of assessment that measures one’s normal performance
Unbalancing
A restructuring technique used to better establish a proper family hierarchy
Unconscious Mind
The most nebulous part of a person’s mind. It contains memories, instincts, and drives that are exceedingly difficult to bring to a person’s conscious awareness
Unfinished Business
In gestalt therapy, past unresolved issues that interfere with an individual’s present functioning.
Unintentional Tort
A tort not planned or aimed to cause harm to the client.
Unstructured Interview
Interviews that use no pre-established questions and tend to rely on the client’s lead to determine a focus
U.S. Rehabilitation Act of 1973
A civil rights act that protects individuals with disabilities from being discriminated against or denied equal access to services and opportunities because of their disability
Validity
How accurately an instrument measures a given construct
Validity Coefficient
Often used to report validity; a correlation between a test score and the criterion measure
Values
Beliefs that guide an individuals’ behavior and emotional responses
Values Inventories
A group of inventories that assist individuals in identifying and prioritizing work-related values
Variability
A measure of the spread in a distribution of scores or data points
Variable
A construct that has at least two categories and therefore can vary and be measured
Variance
A type of variability equal to the SD squared
Vicarious Trauma
A stress reaction resulting from exposure to client disclosures of traumatic events
Violence
Involves a premeditated or spur-of-the-moment intent to cause harm
Visitors
A term used in SFBT to characterize clients who do not recognize that a problem exists and are not ready or willing to change
Vocational Aptitude Testing
A set of predictive tests that are designed to measure one’s potential for occupational success
Vocational Construct System
A group of constructs proposed bye George Kelly that assist individuals in finding purpose at work, evaluating career decisions and tasks, and developing a sense of community
Vocational Education Act of 1963
Legislation that expanded career education programs to include career services for elementary schools, technical institutions, and public community colleges
Lev Vygotsky
A Russian psychologist known for his constructionist, cognitive developmental theory, which held that cognitive processes occur in a social context and are facilitated by language development
John Watson
Often referred to as the father of American behaviorism. Avidly campaigned for his idea that psychology should only deal with what can be observed and accurately measured.
Carl Whitaker
Developed symbolic-experiential family therapy
Michael White
With David Epston, developed narrative therapy, a postmodern and social constructionist approach
White Privilege
The benefits received by being White
White Supremacy
The wrongful justification that Whites deserve certain advantages because they are the superior race
Wilcoxon’s Signed-Ranks Test
A nonparametric statistical test equivalent to a dependent t-test; involves ranking the amount and direction of change for each pair of scores
Edmund Williamson
Best known for his directive approach to counseling, the Minnesota point of view
Willowbrook Study
An unethical research study in which researcher used a school for children with mental disabilities to study the effects of hepatitis in a controlled setting.
Within-Subject Design
A general category of experimental designs that involve assessing changes that occur within the participants in a group as they experience some intervention
Joseph Wolpe
Applied classical conditioning procedures to psychotherapy
Work
Activities that serve as one’s regular source of livelihood; commonly associated with a job position
Work Adjustment
The continuous process by which an individual achieves and maintains correspondence with the work environment
Workforce
The workers who make up the labor market
Working Stage
A stage of group development characterized by committed members who work to accomplish personal and group goals and help other members to do so by giving feedback, working as a cooperative team, and facilitating a supportive environment of positive change
X-Linked Diseases
Genetic disorders that are passed through the maternal X chromosome to males.
Yerkes-Dodson Law
States that memory and performance are optimized when an individual attains a moderate state of arousal
z-Score
A standardized score for which the distribution has a mean of 0 and a SD of 1; it represents the number of standard deviation units above or below the mean at which a given score falls.
