GLOSSARY Flashcards
(107 cards)
1
Q
Accuracy
A
How close a measure relates to the ‘true’ value of the quantity being measured.
2
Q
Acronym
A
A pronounceable word formed from the first letters of a group of words.
3
Q
Acrostic
A
In relation to a mnemonic, making verbal associations for items to be remembered by constructing a sentence, phrase or other composition using the first letters of the information to be remembered.
4
Q
Activity scheduling
A
See behaviour activation.
5
Q
Acute stress
A
Stress that lasts for a relatively short time.
6
Q
Adaptive behaviour
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Any behaviour that enables the individual to adjust to the environment appropriately and effectively; compare with maladaptive behaviour.
7
Q
Adrenaline
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A hormone secreted during stress; also called epinephrine.
8
Q
Advanced Sleep Phase Disorder
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A circadian rhythm sleep disorder characterised by a shift of the major sleep episode to an earlier time compared to desired or conventional sleep times, resulting in sleep onset and awakening much earlier than desired and excessive sleepiness; see also circadian rhythm sleep disorder; compare with Delayed Sleep Phase Syndrome.
9
Q
Afferent pathway
A
A neural pathway that carries information towards the brain or spinal cord (e.g. sensory information); compare with efferent pathway.
10
Q
Agonist
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A chemical agent (e.g. drug) that stimulates neurotransmitter activity; compare with antagonist.
11
Q
Aim
A
A statement outlining the purpose of the investigation.
12
Q
Alarm reaction
A
The first stage of the General Adaptation Syndrome in which the body goes into a temporary state of shock, then rebounds (counter shock), following initial awareness of a stressor.
13
Q
Alpha brain wave pattern
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Associated with a relaxed, calm, internally focussed wakeful state of consciousness, especially if eyes are closed.
14
Q
Altered state of consciousness
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Any state of consciousness that is distinctly different from normal waking consciousness or any waking state in terms of level of awareness and experience; compare with normal waking consciousness.
15
Q
Alzheimer’s disease
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A neurodegenerative disorder characterised by gradual widespread degeneration of brain neurons, progressively causing memory decline, deterioration of cognitive and social skills, and personality changes.
16
Q
Amygdala
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A small structure in the medial temporal lobe, deep within the brain and part of the limbic system; involved in emotional reactions (particularly fear and anger) and formation of a wide variety of emotional memories.
17
Q
Anecdote
A
An informal verbal report of an event that has been casually observed.
18
Q
Antagonist
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A chemical agent (e.g. drug) that inhibits neurotransmitter activity; compare with agonist.
19
Q
Antecedent stimulus
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An object or event that precedes a specific behaviour and signals the probable consequence for the behaviour and therefore influences the occurrence of the behaviour.
20
Q
Anticipatory anxiety
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In relation to specific phobia, worry or apprehension about the possibility of being exposed to a phobic stimulus in the future.
21
Q
Anxiety
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A state of arousal involving unpleasant feelings of apprehension or uneasiness that something is wrong or something unpleasant is about to happen.
22
Q
Aphantasia
A
Absence of visual imagery.
23
Q
Appraisal
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An relation to the Lazarus and Folkman model, the cognitive evaluation of the nature and significance of a stressor; see primary appraisal and secondary appraisal.
24
Q
Approach coping strategy
A
An effort to cope with stress by confronting the stressor and dealing directly with it and its effects; compare with avoidance coping strategy.
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Atkinson–Shiffrin multi-store model
A representation and explanation of memory as consisting of three separate stores called sensory memory, short-term memory and long-term memory, differing in function, capacity and duration.
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Attention
The process of focusing on specific stimuli or aspects of the sensory environment whilst ignoring and therefore excluding others; in observational learning, the first step in the process which involves watching a model’s behaviour and its consequences.
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Autobiographical memory
A person’s memory for episodes or experiences that occurred in their own life; compare with episodic memory.
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Autonomic nervous system
A sub-division of the peripheral nervous system that connects the central nervous system to the body’s internal organs and glands, providing feedback to the brain about their activities.
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Avoidance behaviour
In relation to specific phobia, actions that help avert any contact, exposure or engagement with a phobic stimulus.
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Avoidance coping strategy
An effort to cope with stress by evading the stressor and dealing indirectly with it and its effects; compare with approach coping strategy.
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Basal ganglia
A group of structures (neuron cell bodies called nuclei) deep within the brain, involved in the generation of voluntary movements and long-term implicit memories involving motor skills.
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Behaviour
Any action made by a living person (or animal) that can be observed or measured.
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Behaviour activation
A CBT technique to help an individual identify and schedule activities that promote enjoyment or reduce stress; also called activity scheduling.
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Behaviourist approach to learning
Emphasises the study of observable behaviour alone to understand and explain learning, without regard to underlying mental processes; see classical conditioning and operant conditioning.
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Behavioural model
Based on the theory that individuals’ actions and behaviours are learned.
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Beneficence
In relation to research ethics, the commitment to maximising benefits and minimising the risks and harms involved in taking a particular position or course of action.
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Benzodiazepines
A group of drugs that work on the central nervous system, acting selectively on GABA receptors in the brain to increase GABA’s inhibitory effects and make postsynaptic neurons resistant to excitation; commonly called sedatives or mild tranquilisers.
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Beta brain wave pattern
Associated with alertness and intensive mental activity during normal waking consciousness; also present during REM sleep dreams.
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Between groups
See between subjects.
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Between subjects
An experimental design in which each participant is assigned to only one group or condition and provides only one score for data analysis; also called independent groups and between groups.
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Biased sample
A research sample that does not adequately represent the key characteristics of its population.
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Biological clock
Innate timing that regulates one or more biological rhythms; see also suprachiasmatic nucleus.
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Biological factor
In the biopsychosocial model, a physiologically based or determined influence, often not under our control, such as the genes we inherit.
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Biological rhythm
A naturally occurring cycle of physiological, psychological or behavioural changes; see circadian rhythm and ultradian rhythm.
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Biopsychosocial approach
A way of describing and explaining how biological, psychological and social factors combine and interact to influence an individual’s behaviour and mental processes, including mental wellbeing; sometimes called the biopsychosocial model or theory.
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Blood alcohol concentration (BAC)
A measure of alcohol in the body expressed as grams of alcohol/100 mL of blood.
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Breathing retraining
In relation to specific phobia, an anxiety management technique that involves teaching correct breathing habits; also called breathing training.
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Bright light therapy
A technique for treating circadian rhythm sleep disorders that uses timed exposure of the eyes to light with the aim of shifting an individual’s sleep-wake cycle to a desired, more appropriate or conventional schedule.
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Carryover effect
An order effect in an experiment that arises from experiencing a task and thereby affects current performance.
50
Case study
An intensive, in-depth investigation of some behaviour, event or problem of interest in a single individual, group, organisation or situation.
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Catastrophic thinking
Cognitive bias which involves overestimating, exaggerating or magnifying an event, activity or situation and predicting the worst possible outcome.
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Central nervous system
The brain and spinal cord.
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Cerebellum
Structure at the base of the brain with multiple roles, including coordination of fine muscle movements, regulation of posture and balance, and various perceptual and cognitive processes; in relation to memory, involved in formation of long-term motor skill memories and stores implicit memories of simple conditioned reflexes.
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Chronic stress
Stress that continues for a prolonged period of time.
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Circadian rhythm
A biological rhythm involving physiological, psychological or behavioural changes that occur as part of a cycle with a duration of about 24 hours; compare with ultradian rhythm.
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Circadian rhythm sleep disorder
A sleep disorder involving sleep disturbance that is primarily due to a mismatch between an individual’s sleep–wake pattern and the pattern that is desired or required.
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Classical conditioning
A three-phase learning process (before conditioning, during conditioning and after conditioning) that results in the involuntary association between a neutral stimulus and unconditioned stimulus to produce a conditioned response; see also three-phase model of classical conditioning.
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Classically conditioned memory
Implicit memory of a conditioned response to a conditioned stimulus acquired through classical conditioning, e.g. simple conditioned reflex responses.
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Cognitive behavioural strategy
In relation to psychotherapy, a CBT technique used to identify, assess and correct faulty patterns of thinking or problem behaviours that may be adversely affecting mental health and wellbeing.
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Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT)
A type of psychotherapy based on the assumption that the way people feel and behave is largely a product of the way they think; aims to identify, assess and correct faulty patterns of thinking that may be affecting mental health and wellbeing.
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Cognitive bias
A mistaken way of thinking that leads to systematic errors of judgment and faulty decision-making.
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Cognitive model
Emphasises the role of mental processes in describing and explaining behaviour.
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Cognitive restructuring
A CBT technique that may be used to help the individual identify their cognitive biases and other distorted ways of thinking, refute them, and then modify them so that they are adaptive and reasonable.
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Conclusion
In relation to research, a decision about what the results obtained from a research study mean.
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Conditioned response
In classical conditioning, the learned or acquired response to the conditioned stimulus.
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Conditioned stimulus
In classical conditioning, the stimulus that is initially neutral and does not normally produce the unconditioned response but eventually becomes associated with the unconditioned stimulus and elicits a conditioned response.
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Conditioning
A learning process through which stimuli and responses become associated with one another.
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Confidentiality
Ethical guideline for research involving the privacy, protection and security of a participant’s personal information, including results.
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Confounding variable
A variable other than the independent variable that has affected the results (the dependent variable) and whose effect(s) cannot be separated from that of the independent variable, thereby providing an alternative explanation(s) for the results; compare with extraneous variable.
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Conscious response
A reaction to a sensory stimulus that involves awareness; usually voluntary, goal-directed and with some degree of control over it; compare with unconscious response.
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Consciousness
A state of awareness with variations in level and associated with distinguishable psychological and physiological characteristics.
- Awareness of something either internal or external to oneself, including objects and events in the external world, and of our sensations, mental experiences and own existence at any given moment.
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Consequence
In operant conditioning, the environmental event that occurs immediately after the relevant behaviour and has an effect on the occurrence of the behaviour.
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Consolidation
The neurobiological process of making a newly formed memory stable and enduring following a learning experience.
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Context
The setting, situation or environment in which an event occurs.
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Context-specific effectiveness
In relation to coping, when there is a match or ‘good fit’ between the coping strategy that is used and the stressful situation.
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Continuum
A spectrum or scale with distinct extremes or opposites on which something (including personal characteristics) can be shown to be varying in level or degree.
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Continuum of awareness
In relation to consciousness, a spectrum or scale with total awareness and complete lack of awareness at the two extremities, and other states of awareness (or consciousness) in between.
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Control condition
In an experiment, the standard against which the experimental condition can be compared; involves the control group who are not exposed to the independent variable.
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Control group
The group in an experiment not exposed to the independent variable.
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Controlled experiment
An experimental investigation of the relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable, whilst controlling all other variables.
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Controlled variable
A variable that is considered to have an effect on the dependent variable so it is held constant to remove its potential effect.
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Convenience sampling
Selecting participants who are readily or most easily available.
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Coping
In relation to stress management, attempting to manage the demands of a stressor in some effective way.
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Coping flexibility
The ability to effectively modify or adjust one’s coping strategies according to the demands of different stressors.
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Coping strategy
A specific method used to manage or reduce the stress produced by a stressor; see also approach coping strategy and avoidance coping strategy.
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Correlation
The degree of a relationship between two variables.
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Correlation coefficient
A statistic used to describe the relationship between two variables.
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Correlational study
A research method used to investigate the relationship between variables without any control over the setting in which the relationship occurs or any manipulation by the researcher.
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Cortisol
A hormone secreted from the adrenal glands in response to a stressor.
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Counter shock
In the General Adaptation Syndrome, rebound from the temporary state of shock during the initial alarm reaction stage.
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Counterbalancing
Systematically changing the order of treatments or tasks for participants in a ‘balanced’ way to ‘counter’ the unwanted effects on performance of any one order.
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Cultural continuity
The preservation of all things to do with culture over time, and the sense of history, identity and belonging this provides.
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Culture
The way of life of a particular community or group that sets it apart from other communities and groups.
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Data
Information collected through research; see also primary data, secondary data, quantitative data and qualitative data.
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Debriefing
Ethical guideline requiring that at the end of the experiment, the participant leaves understanding the experimental aim, results and conclusions including wellbeing checks where appropriate.
96
Deception (in research)
When a researcher deliberately conceals the true purpose of the experiment from participants by misleading or misinforming them.
97
Delayed Sleep Phase Syndrome
A condition in which the major sleep episode is delayed in relation to the desired sleep time or what is considered a conventional time; see also circadian rhythm sleep disorder.
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Delta brain wave pattern
Associated with deep, dreamless sleep or unconsciousness.
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Demand characteristic
A cues in an experiment that may influence or bias a participant’s response, thereby distorting the results.
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Dependent variable
The variable the researcher measures, after selecting the independent variable that is assumed to have an effect on the independent variable.
101
Dopamine
A neurotransmitter or neuromodulator with multiple functions depending on where it acts; functions include roles in coordinating movement, learning and behaviours that are rewarding.
102
Double blind
A procedure in which both the participants and the experimenter(s) interacting with them are unaware of the conditions to which the participants have been allocated; compare with single blind.
103
Echoic memory
Auditory sensory memory for incoming auditory information that stores sounds in their original sensory form for about 3 or 4 seconds.
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Efferent pathway
A neural pathway that carries information away from the brain or spinal cord (e.g. motor information); compare with afferent pathway.
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Elaborative rehearsal
The process of linking new information in a meaningful way with information already stored in memory or with other information to aid its storage and future retrieval from long-term memory; compare with maintenance rehearsal.
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Electroencephalography
A method of studying brain wave patterns by recording the electrical activity of the brain.
107
Electromyography
