Globalisation, modernity and postmodernity Flashcards
1
Q
What are the theories under this topic known as and what are they part of?
A
- modernism
- part of the enlightenment project > the idea that society can progress the use of human reason
2
Q
What does modernity refer to and what is it characterised by?
A
- periods of social development that emerged after the enlightenment characterized by
- the nation state > modernity brought the rise of the nation state which centralised political power, reinforced national identities etc. > states create social intuitions to organise society
- capitalism> the growth of industrial production & capitalist economies led to urbansisation & mass consumption
- Rationality & science> Knowledge is based on reason, logic & empirical evidence rather than religion or superstition > important in industries such as medicine
- individualism> personal freedom in our choices & can define own identity
3
Q
What is globalisation?
A
- the increasing interconnectedness of societies across national boundaries
4
Q
What four changes have brought globalisation about?
A
- Technological changes > the rise of the internet, satellite communication and transport developments has allowed for global interaction
- Economic changes > global economy = electronic economy, much activity involves the production of information such as TV > global 24hr financial transactions
- political changes > the decline of the nation-state, TNC’S & consumers have more power
- Cultural changes > western culture spreads globally through the media & leads to the blending of cultures, forming new hybrid identities (e.g. Bollywood)
5
Q
What do postmodernists argue about society?
A
- PM’s argue that we now live in an era characterized by instability, fragmentation, and a media-saturated environment where traditional structures such as class, religion, & politics have lost their influence.
- Unlike modernity, which was built on the idea of progress and rationality, postmodernity is defined by uncertainty and a rejection of universal truths
- shift has led to a new way of understanding society, one where individual identity is fluid and knowledge is socially constructed rather than objectively determined
6
Q
What do postmodernists argue about knowledge?
A
- drawing from Michel Foucault > reject the idea that knowledge is based on objective foundation, they propose anti-foundationalism which asserts that:
1. There is no universal truth: enlightenment project of achieving progress through science is dead > Since we cannot guarantee that our knowledge is correct, we cannot rely on it to improve society
2. Meta-narratives (grand theories) are invalid: Theories that claim to explain everything such as Marxism or functionalism are simply meta-narratives, or ‘big stories,’ that impose a particular worldview rather than reflect an objective reality - Pm’s argue that these meta-narratives have historically led to oppression, as seen in totalitarian states like the Soviet Union.
- they advocate for a relativist position, where all perspectives are equally valid
- Lyotard > knowledge is just a series of language games
7
Q
What does Baudrillard argue about knowledge?
A
- knowledge is central to PM society which is in the form of images & signs
- he argues that in PM society, the distinction between reality and representation has collapsed
- He introduces the concept of simulacra, where images and signs do not reflect reality but instead become (substitute) reality themselves
- this is what he calls hyper-reality, where representations of reality (e.g., media portrayals) are taken as reality itself
- e.g. reality TV shows such as LI create a world that appears real but is heavily constructed & edited, the news media also creates a narrative rather than reporting events objectively.
- he argues that because the media dominates PM society, people can no longer distinguish between reality and representation, leading to a loss of meaning.
8
Q
Evaluation of Baudrillard view on knowledge
A
- Explains how the media influences perceptions of reality, particularly relevant in the digital age of social media, deepfakes, and AI-generated content
- too pessimistic > Critics argue that people can still distinguish between reality and fiction; for example, audiences are aware that films and TV shows are constructed
9
Q
What do postmodernists argue about culture and identity?
A
- PM’s argue that culture & identity have fundamentally changed due to the influence of mass media in creating a hyper reality
- culture & traditional sources of identity, such as class, religion, and gender roles, have become fragmented, leading to a loss of shared values > pick & mix culture emerges
- individuals are bombarded with a overwhelming number of messages and perspectives > makes it difficult to commit to a single worldview
- Baudrillard> hyper reality means we have lost power to improve society, central goal of the enlightenment project is unachievable
10
Q
What does Foucault argue about power, truth & discourse?
A
- Foucault argues that knowledge is a form of power
- Instead of seeing truth as an objective reality, he suggests that ‘truth’ is shaped by discourse > ways of thinking and speaking about the world
e.g. the way mental illness is understood has changed over time, In religious societies, madness was seen as possession by spirits; in modern psychiatry, it is classified as a disorder like schizophrenia > both are socially constructed ‘truths’ imposed by dominant discourse - Foucault rejects the Enlightenment idea that knowledge leads to progress, arguing that each form of knowledge imposes its own form of power and control
11
Q
Evaluation of the postmodern view overall
A
- Ignores power and inequality > Philo & Miller argue that postmodernists fail to acknowledge how capitalism and political structures still shape society.
- Moral relativism >If all views are equally valid, this makes it difficult to challenge harmful ideas (e.g., Holocaust denial).
- Self-contradiction: Postmodernism rejects meta-narratives but becomes a meta-narrative itself by claiming that no single truth exists.
- Pessimism about progress > Postmodernists argue that objective knowledge is impossible, but Marxists like David Harvey suggest that social science can still improve society
12
Q
How do theories of late modernity differ from postmodernism?
A
- theories of late modernity argue that rapid social changes (e.g., globalization, technological advances) are not a break from modernity but rather a continuation of it
- Modernist theories remain relevant because we are still in an era shaped by modernist ideas, but we have entered a ‘late’ phase where these transformations have accelerated
- Late modernity is still influenced by the Enlightenment project (belief in rationality and progress) which can be used to improve society & reduce risks unlike postmodernism, which rejects objective knowledge
13
Q
What is the first feature Giddens argues is the cause of rapid social change in late modernity and what does she say?
A
- disembedding
- she defines disembedding as the process where social relations are lifted out of local contexts and spread globally
- In the past, social interaction was heavily dependent on face-to-face contact, but now, it transcends time and space (e.g., online communication, international business).
- Custom and tradition decline, making social interactions less personal and leading to greater individualism.
- e.g. people no longer automatically follow their parents’ careers or traditions—they make independent choices.
14
Q
What is the second feature Giddens argues is the cause of rapid social change in late modernity and what does she say?
A
- reflexivity
- As tradition weakens, people must become reflexive, meaning they constantly evaluate and modify their choices.
- Society does not provide fixed norms anymore > individuals must navigate risks and uncertainties on their own
- e.g. Career choices, relationships, and identities are more fluid—people reassess and change their paths frequently
- Reflexivity leads to greater personal freedom, but also anxiety and instability, as people are forced to make decisions without clear guidance
15
Q
Evaluation of Giddens view on late modernity
A
- Overstates individual agency—not everyone has the power to reshape their lives after reflecting e.g. poor exposed to more environmental risks as they live in poorer areas
- assumes everyone engages in reflexivity but some still rely on traditional structures e.g. religion
16
Q
What does Beck argue about late modern society?
A
- Beck argues that late modernity introduces new types of risks—not from nature but from human-made dangers
- high-consequence risks: Nuclear war, Economic instability, Environmental threats (global warming, pollution)
- He believes that because of these risks, society has become more individualized and reflexive, people must constantly assess dangers and make informed choices
- e.g. Awareness of unhealthy food leads to dietary changes, climate risks influence travel decisions, etc.
- Thus as Risk consciousness grows > we use our reason to identify and reduce risks e.g. environmental movements show that scientific knowledge can help tackle climate change
17
Q
Evaluation of Beck on late modernity
A
-Hirst critiques Beck’s belief that social movements (e.g., environmentalism) can bring change, arguing they are too fragmented to challenge capitalism effectively
- Fails to account for inequalities—wealthier people can avoid risks, while the poor remain vulnerable.
- e.g. Wealthy nations pollute more but suffer less from environmental damage
18
Q
What do Marxists argue about postmodernity?
A
- some Marxists argue that we have moved beyond modernity into postmodernity
- agree with PM’s that society has undergone significant changes, but they do not see these changes as a fundamental break from the past
- Instead, they argue that postmodernity is simply the latest stage of capitalism > emerged out of the capitalists crisis of the 1970s
19
Q
What did the capitalists crisis of the 1970s lead to according to Marxist Harvey and what is it?
A
- Harvey identifies a major shift in capitalism following the economic downturn of the 1970s
- He argues that the previous economic system, based on Fordism (mass production of standardised goods), was replaced by a more flexible system of production, which he calls flexible accumulation or post-Fordism
20
Q
What changes did the new phase of capitalism bring according to Harvey?
A
- Greater use of technology in production, leading to more automation.
- job insecurity > companies moved towards short-term contracts & temporary employment rather than lifelong careers
- Customised production rather than mass production, promoting cultural diversity by catering to niche markets.
- commodification of culture> meaning that things like fashion, music & identity became commercial products for profit
- Time-space compression> where globalisation & digital technology made communication & economic transactions almost instant > shrinks globe
- Harvey argues that this shift represents a more advanced stage of capitalism, where capitalism has found new ways to expand & generate profit by turning more aspects of life into commodities
21
Q
What political changes did flexible accumulate lead to?
A
- Traditional working-class movements weakened e.g. socialist movements, as industries shifted and stable employment declined
- New political and social movements arose in their place e.g. feminism, environmentalism, and anti-racism, became more prominent
- Some Marxists argue that these movements can form alliances, known as the ‘rainbow alliance’, to challenge capitalism in new ways.
- unlike PM’s Marxists do not reject the idea of progress > believe that while capitalism has changed, social change is still possible
22
Q
Evaluation of the Marxists view on postmodernity
A
- Marxists offer an alternative to postmodernist pessimism by arguing that social progress is still possible
