GLOBALISATION AND THE DIGITAL WORLD

Question 1

What is the general definition of globalisation?

Answer 1

Globalisation is a word that is used to describe a process which has been going on for a very long time - it started when early humans began moving to Africa around 1.8 millions ago
As communication and transportation developed with greater efficiency, more people became connected (eg internet was created in 1983)

Question 2

How did Cochrane and Pain define globalisation?

Answer 2

the emergence of a global economic and cultural system which is incorporating the people of the world into a single global society

Question 3

How did Giddens define globalisation?

Answer 3

globalisation can be defined as the intensification of worldwide social relations which link distant localities in such a way that local happenings are shaped by events occurring many miles away and vice versa

Question 4

How did Cohen and Kennedy define globalisation?

Answer 4

a series of transformations of the world, including changes in the concept of time and space, interdependent economies and increasing cultural interaction an increasingly shared problems

Question 5

What did Giddens, Duneier and Applebaum argue?

Answer 5

argued that if human history were equivalent to a 24 hour clock, then not much would have happened for the first 23 hours
More change has happened in the last 30 seconds than in the entire time that preceded this

Question 6

What did Wiseman argue?

Answer 6

warns us that the term globalisation can be misused and misunderstood and therefore needs careful consideration when it is being used and defined in sociology

Question 7

What are positives of globalisation?

Answer 7

Greater geographical mobility (eg migration)
Increasing multiculturalism
People have become more aware of the inequalities and povert in other cultures, which has lead to charities to help them (eg WaterAid)
The increasing and decreasing importance of national boundaries
The increasing role of technology

Question 8

What are negatives of globalisation?

Answer 8

The spread of different values and ideas could lead to increased conflict, as there is a wider range of norms and values
Economic and power inequalities
Has had a negative effect on the environment leading to global climate change

Question 9

What is the digital revolution?

Answer 9

the massive and rapid advances in technology which have transformed people’s lives over the past few decades
The growth of digital technology has had a huge impact on the way information is stored and communicated, created by computer technology using internationally recognised programming systems
This means information can be shared around the world

Question 10

What are new media categories?

Answer 10

include the extension and development of existing forms of media on various new platforms (eg newspapers can now be read online)
Another way in which the media is ‘new’ is through new forms of platforms, such as mobile phones, laptops and tablets which have new apps that help people communicate more easily

Question 11

What did Carter argue?

Answer 11

conducted research in cybercity (a virtual world) with over 1,062,072 registered users
She visited the world everyday and did participant observations and questionnaires, as well as offline semi-structured interviews
Illustrates how, for many people, cyberspace is just another place to meet people with similar interests
Found out that people who meet a person online do in fact often then continue these online friendships offline by meeting them in person

Question 12

What are virtual communities?

Answer 12

A social network of individuals who create an online community which may or may not reflect their offline lives
They are becoming more realistic, and allowing people to share interests and create and transform their identities

Question 13

What did Boellstorff?

Answer 13

conducted more than two years of fieldwork in Second Life (one of the largest virtual worlds)
Used participant observation and interviews inside the virtual world, and explored a range of issues including gender, race, sex, money, conflict and antisocial behaviour
However, many crimes committed online don’t get the same reproductions than if it was done in real life - for example prostitution and pornography happens on Second Life, as well as there being a ‘rape add on’

Question 14

What are social networks?

Answer 14

Networked global society refers to the idea that in post-industrial society, the focus is on information as a result of new forms of communication
Those with the access to information create social networks, often which result in greater employability and hierarchical status which leads to social capital
Eg LinkedIn is a social network created for people to develop employment based connections - it is designed specifically to allow people to find a job (had more than 20 million users)

Question 15

What did Castells argue?

Answer 15

claims we are moving from an industrial age into an age defined by information
This significant change has occurred as a result of the evolution of new information technologies, particularly those for communication
Argued that although society remains capitalist, the focus has shifted from a focus on energy such as oil, gas and electricity, to a focus on information
Power now rests in networks and some networks with financial capital are global
Resources (employees), consultants and businesses are brought together to work on a particular project, then dispersed and reallocated when the task is complete
The people at the bottom (labourers, factory workers) who, with nothing to offer, are the ones excluded

Question 16

What is the AWA?

Answer 16

They live in the depth of the rainforest in Brazil and are at risk of extinction from disease and land loss
Globalisation has led to increasing demands for land, often due to the spread of TNCs (eg the high demand of timber has led to illegal logging which destroys habitats)
There are thought to be 77 isolated groups in the amazon rainforest, and these societies are fighting for their right to live in the area as the Western developers want to clear the rainforest for farming as well as extracting natural resources from the land
Campaigns led by internet based organisations - eg Survival International provides public, legal and practical support to these tribes which involved helping these groups win the right to lands which they have lived on for thousands of years - these uncontested tribes may be forced to fight for their rights through new forms of communication

Question 17

What are the three types of media convergence?

Answer 17

Technological convergence: smartphones, tablets, laptops etc can proces different forms of digital information such as text, photos, videos, audio, maps and social networking
Economic convergence: multimedia delivery systems have united formerly separate corporations (YouTube and advertising)
Cultural convergence: most people interact using the same types of digital communications, replacing letters with emails and social media (everything is becoming online)

Question 18

How many user does each social media have?

Answer 18

Facebook - 2.8 million monthly active users in the world
Instagram - 1 billion (34.6 million in the UK)
TikTok - 1 billion (9.2 million in the UK)
YouTube - 2 billion (35% of the UK use it)

Question 19

What are the key names for media convergence?

Answer 19

Van Dijk, Carter, Castells

Question 20

What did Van Dijk argue?

Answer 20

argues that identity and community are increasingly shaped by virtual communities, and that people would struggle studying or organising their social life without digital technology

Question 21

What did Castells argue about digital media and communication?

Answer 21

argues that digital media has transformed our relationships with politicians but also how they have as careers can be ruined in minutes (eg Matt Hancock)
Also political careers can be more easily extended globally

Question 22

What is big data and what are the 4Vs and C?

Answer 22

all of the information above creates huge amounts of data which has different other kinds of data in:
Volume - there is a lot of it which affects how/where it is stored
Velocity - streaming at an unprecedented speed
Variety - everything we do is now digital, room videos, purchases, the stock market
Variability - the unpredictability of what will be ‘viral’
Complexicity - correlating the converging of all these different sources

Question 23

What are statistics about the gender use of media?

Answer 23

Younger women spend the least amount of time using social media to find information (16%)
In each month in 2014, 40 million more women visited Twitter than men
Among the top 50 brand followers in Instagram, 53% were women
Younger women are much more likely to use digital forms of communication to maintain social relationships - 42% of women use social media to stay in touch
69% of Facebook gamers are women
OFCOM found that in 2015 males are more likely than females to use the internet (23.3 hours a week, whereas for women its 17.8 hours)

Question 24

What did the International Media Support find about gender in the media?

Answer 24

women only make up 24% of the people heard, read about or seen in newspaper television and radio news
46% of news stories reinforce gender stereotypes while only 4% of stories clearly challenge gender stereotypes

Question 25

What did Hartmann and Klimmt find?

Answer 25

women gamers generally dislike violent content and preferred the social interaction aspect of games

Question 26

What did Olsen et al find?

Answer 26

found that boys are more likely to play violent video games because they want to express fantasies of power and glory and to master exciting and realistic environments to work out their anger and stress
The same study noted girls were increasingly using video games to express and cope with anger

Question 27

Who is Malala?

Answer 27

an activist who spoke up about education rights for young girls and as a result got shot by the Taliban on her school bus
She was given a voice through the media, and spoke up a lot for people who didn’t feel they had a voice

Question 28

Who does digital communication impact gender inequality?

Answer 28

pornography and violent portrayal against women (Georgia Williams, Morgan R, Lord Chief Justics)
Fourth wave feminism (Kira Cochrane, Laura Bates)
Sexualisation of women (Walter)
Human trafficking

Question 29

How does pornography lead to more gender inequality in the media?

Answer 29

Pornography degrades women by depicting them as objects that exist for men’s sexual pleasure and portrays them as legitimate targets for men’s sexual violence
Georgia Williams, 17, was brutally murdered by a ‘porn-obsessed’ shop worker, 23, who throttled the girls with a rope before hanging her from the noose in order to fulfill his sick fantasies which had been fuelled by his obsession with violent pornography
In 2015, the lord Chief Justice said he was ‘in no doubt’ that access to pornographies online encouraged perverts to turn their fantasies into reality
The writer Morgan R was quoted saying ‘pornography is the theory, and rape is the practice’

Question 30

How has fourth wave feminism impacted gender inequality?

Answer 30

Fourth wave feminism is uses technology as a way for feminists so spread their messages globally
Kira Cochrane argues fourth wave feminism is defined by technology, as tools are allowing women to build a strong, popular, reactive movement online (eg Everyday Sexism Project)
Laura Bates is the face of fourth wave feminism, as she has used the media to find ways that boys are reinforcing gender inequality (eg forums)
In 2012, she created a website to catalogue experiences of gender inequality after being harassed thee times in one week and wondering why it had become so normalised (Everyday Sexism Project)
50,000 women from all over the world added their stories in 18 months, she took 2000 stories of people being harassed on public transport to the British transport police and they released a message saying they were taking it seriously (lead to a 20% increase of reports)

Question 31

What does Walter argue?

Answer 31

that we live in a hyper sexual society, where women are sexualised in the media which reinforces the idea that women should be judged on their appearance

Question 32

How does the media lead to more human trafficking?

Answer 32

The internet and digital communication has resulted in human trafficking becoming easier, as they use the social network to advertise job offers and communicate with their victims
72% of victims are women/girls, and they are mainly used for sexual exploitation, whereas 28% are men/boys being used for forced labour

Question 33

What is the general marxist perspective of digital media?

Answer 33

Media convergences creates greater opportunities for shaping people’s ideas, encouraging people to accept capitalism and not question the inequalities that exist
The idea is to bring about a state of false class consciousness so that citizens do not criticise or challenge the unjust capitalist society
Social media is effective at this as it focuses on non-critical issues of identity, consumption and entertainment - all unlikely to lead to protest or social change

Question 34

What are the marxist key names?

Answer 34

Fuchs, Jenks, McChesney, Seabrook, Ritzer, Garside, Cornford and Robins, Snowdon report,

Question 35

What did Fuchs argue?

Answer 35

states ‘the class which has the means of material production at its disposal, has control at the same time over the means of mental production, so the ideas of those who lack the means to mental productions are subject to it’
The ideas of the ruling class are the ruling ideas throughout all of time

Question 36

What did Jenks argue?

Answer 36

argued that most forms of digital media are a result of investment by major media corporations, and big powerful organisations use the media to spread their messafe

Question 37

What did McChesney argue?

Answer 37

made the theory of the ‘culture of homogeneity’ where Google, Twitter and Facebook operate in hundreds of countries globally and are colonising the minds of the world to behave and think in a certain way

Question 38

What did Seabrooke argue?

Answer 38

‘Cultural imperialism’
Global digital communication is dominated by western cultural industries imposing their values onto the rest of the world
Integration into a single global economy and culture is a ‘declaration of cultural war’ upon other cultures, implying traditional cultures have little or no value
This is an attempt to replace diversity with homogeneity, resulting in painful social and religious disruption
Some suggest that Islamist fundamentalism is a reaction to these processes

Question 39

What did Ritzer argue?

Answer 39

Digital communication is damaging for non-western cultures as it has caused cultural homogenisation and local cultures are being eroded under the pressure from big fast food restaurants
Referred to it as ‘mcdonaldisation’

Question 40

What did Garside find?

Answer 40

that the balance between sleep and screen-based activities has worsened
The typical adult spends 8 hours 41 minutes each day consuming or communicating on media, and just 8 hours 21 minutes asleep

Question 41

What did Cornford and Robins argue?

Answer 41

Claims that digital communication is presented as a new form of democratic, open communication, which can lead to greater equality in the creation and spread of new ideas
However, the people who own and control the digital media are capitalists who not only want to make a profit but also want to ideologically control the masses
Today, power and money comes from the media, whereas previously it was factories and means of production

Question 42

What was the Snowdon Report?

Answer 42

Revealed widespread misuse of surveillance using the media as it provided evidence that the US and British government had been accessing personal and private information claiming it was for the interests of ‘national security’
Intelligence dismiss such claims, arguing their programmes are necessary and legal
Lead to controversy where Brazilian President, Dilma Rousseff, cancelled a state visit to the US because they were spying on her
He was charged with two convictions and has seemed asylum in Russia

Question 43

What are criticisms of the marxist view?

Answer 43

The marxist view implies conspiracy, however the big media powers are in competition with each other, not unified
They emphasise social class at the expense of other inequalities
Digital communication can promote democracy giving an outlet to the oppressed and minority groups and encourage political action

Question 44

Who was Molly and what happened to her?

Answer 44

Young girl called Molly killed herself at 14 years old after being bombarded with pro-suicide content (180 posts a day) following the algorithm, showing the lack of guidelines
Although, there are laws in place to try and prevent this, for example the Online Safety Bill 2021 aims to protect children from pornography and limit people’s exposure to illegal content

Question 45

What is the general postmodern perspective and what are the key names?

Answer 45

They believe that social media is a new way that people are making their own identities, and people often form two identities - one online and one offline
Collins, Bjorklund, Hart, Case, Elliot

Question 46

What did Collins argue?

Answer 46

Argues that we must understand the chains of interaction between people
Suggests we must look closely at how individuals construct their identity through social media sites as it reveals how a person sees their identity
(Postmodernist)

Question 47

What did Bjorklund argue?

Answer 47

Until recently, individuals have used autobiographies to describe their lives as they near the end - however, in a postmodern world, she suggests that people take a different approach to defining themselves
Digital communication offers an ongoing autobiography which can be continually manipulated and changed
(Postmodernist)

Question 48

What did Hart argue?

Answer 48

Individuals today are writing and rewriting their autobiographies on a daily basis
Identity is therefore created online and offline - eg by posting a picture on Facebook, the construction of the self occurs from this as they find similar like-minded people
There is a tendency of traditional interpretations of the self to regard postings as trivial and superficial (post the best of themselves)
(Postmodernist)

Question 49

What did Case argue?

Answer 49

Suggests that digital communications can present a challenge, especially to adolescents who in effect have two adolescents: one online and one offline
Claims that the new nature of social media makes it harder to remove mistakes as every interaction is visible, like an audit trail
(Postmodernist)

Question 50

What did Elliot argue?

Answer 50

Pessimistic about the fragmented nature of identity as a result of sites such as Facebook, whilst others prefer to see new ways of seeing the self as only problematic
(Postmodernist)

Question 51

What is the general feminist perspective?

Answer 51

Globalisation has led to new opportunities for criminals to exploit vulnerable groups, as a result women and children who were already at increased risk of exploitation are now even more at risk
Eg organised crime rings, traffickers, pimps and those seeking sexual entertainment
Those who hold the power in terms of government and law-making have not mad passing legislation to protect women and children, this is due to men largely controlling the government and legal systems worldwide
acknowledge that men are also included in this exploitation, however they point out that online forms of abuse reflect the rate and societal patterns already existing in society where it is overhwhelmingly women who experience violence at the hands of men

Question 52

Who are the key names for feminism?

Answer 52

UK Human Trafficking Centre, Haraway, Nakamura, Laura Bates

Question 53

What did the UK Human Trafficking Centre find?

Answer 53

40% were men
However 94% of those identified as trafficked into sexual exploitation were women

Question 54

What did Haraway argue?

Answer 54

Felt strongly that women should be included in all forms of knowledge relating to technologically based information, which appeared to be produced mainly by men
Cyborgs, which are part machine, part human entities, might allow people to transcend or rise above gender-bound ideas of what it means to be a person
Technological advances offer the possibility for women to create new forms of identity not bound by traditional ideas or dominant patriarchal discourses about gender
(Feminist)

Question 55

What did Nakamura argue?

Answer 55

Notes that women from a range of ethnic minorities are gaining an increasing presence in digital communication and this enables their particular interests
Eg support networks for women who might have been unable to access support previously - like The Everyday Sexism Project
(Feminist)

Question 56

What are the benefits of digital media for young people?

Answer 56

Provides opportunities for people with similar interests to find and interact with one another - ‘bonding social capital’
Leads to relationships being establishing with others with similar interests - ‘bridging social capital’, for example fourth wave feminism
Children can learn valuable new skills, enhance learning and create important new connections, increasing their social capital
Children are more likely to engage in political and social issues in new ways
Support groups and networks enable children to gain help in ways which were previously impossible
Miller, Gardner and Davis

Question 57

What did Miller argue?

Answer 57

that social media platforms can have benefits of helping people stay in touch with people over a long geographical distance

Question 58

What did Gardner and Davis argue?

Answer 58

Observe that young people are the most frequent uses of social media
They found that young people take a great deal of care about how they present themselves online, and identified three main trends
Young people construct and perform socially acceptable and polished online self that exaggerated their personality and plays down their less cool traits
Some young people create fictitious identities to be deliberately provocative or aggressive
Once identity has been created online, young people spend a great deal of time managing this identity by liking others and updating their own profile and status
This can be enriching for young people enabling them to create ‘social capital’
Being members of an online community provides people with opportunities to interact with people with similar interests

Question 59

What are the weaknesses of digital media for young people?

Answer 59

Cyber bullying and discrimination can cause devastating upset for victims
Children may feel greater pressure to conform to societal expectations about body image
Risk of children being exploited online, eg grooming or sexual abuse
Boyd, Palme, Postman

Question 60

What did Boyd argue?

Answer 60

that the constant tracking of social media has weakened teenagrs’ ability to deal with their emotions, as they feel that their thoughts are not real until they have been validated online

Question 61

What did Palmers argue?

Answer 61

argued that good quality parenting is being replaced by parents using technology to occupy their children, and as a result children become isolated and lose communication skills

Question 62

What did Postman argue?

Answer 62

argues the internet exposes children to adult content at the click of a button

Question 63

What did Turkle argue?

Answer 63

Suggests social networks such as Facebook have replaced social institutions like the family, education and old media (eg newspapers)
Argues that social networks free people of the ‘burden’ of the physical identity
Suggests that the way people are mentally ‘tethered’ to their digital devices is unhealthy

Question 64

What did Boyle argue?

Answer 64

With each successive generation, the greater the reliance on digital communication
The digital divide is where the elders are less likely to use it, less able, less time, less interest whereas younger people are very proficient and reliant on it, more receptive to learn new skills and more keen to explore and define their emerging identities
Children today are indulged and provided with the latest technology by their parents, who have greater wealth than those in the past
Young people have more time on their hands today than in the past, as they have less jobs, less caring duties and less chores
The young are more influenced by popular culture and opinion in general

Question 65

What did Garside argue?

Answer 65

Argues that the average 6 year old child understands more about digital technology than a 45 year old adult
Born in the new millennium, these children have never known the dark ages of dial up internet, and the youngest are learning how to operate smartphones or tablets before they can talk
For those aged 12-15, phone calls account for 3% of time spent communicating through any device, which has shown the progress from decades ago, when that’s all they were used for

Question 66

What did Berry argue?

Answer 66

Carried out research on secondary data focusing on the way older people use the internet
Among those who do not have access to the internet, most people cite non-material reasons such as lack of skills or lack of interest so explain why they aren’t online
ONS data shows of all internet users log on everyday, while only 59% of older users do (65+)
There had been content designed specifically to encourage older people to use the internet
79% of households below the state pension age have internet access, while only 37% of households above the state pension age do
This difference gives rise to the notion of the digital divide, between those who enjoy access to the internet and those who are excluded

Question 67

What did Livingstone and Helper find?

Answer 67

Conducted 40 minute, face to face, computer-assisted interviews and 1511 children and young people (9-19), as well as questionnaires completed by some of their parents
Reveals inequalities amongst young people by age, gender and class status in relation to their quality of access to and use of the internet
Boys, older children and middle class children all benefit from more and have better quality access to the internet than girls, younger and working class children
The greater use of the internet among middle class children appears to be a result of their increased home access, therefore policy should focus on reducing the differences across households to improve internet access but not focus on the inequalities within households (eg age and gender)

Question 68

What did Ellison argue?

Answer 68

Individuals can adopt multiple online personalities, and online activities often leave visible traces which can be captured, tracked and packaged and shared
Our identities can be selectively constructed and masked to be anything we want online

Question 69

What did Helsper argue?

Answer 69

that digital communications are dominated by the middle class and he defines a digital underclass as characterised by unemployment, low education levels and low digital skills

Question 70

What did OFCOM find in 2015 about the class differences of technology use?

Answer 70

found 95% of AB (higher) socioeconomic status groups use a range of devices to go online at various locations compared with 75% of the DE groups

Question 71

What did Noah Chomsky argue?

Answer 71

Trump controlled the media to be concentrated on him in order to maintain public attention
Well educated, rich, upper class people are ignoring the way they’re destroying organised human life in order to increase their profits
The ruling class are using digital communications to further exploit all they can to increase their profits (use it as a ‘megaphone’)
UK online aims to help people from low economic backgrounds learn the skills to access the internet

Question 72

What did Mertens’ and D’Haenens argue?

Answer 72

Found in their study of the digital divide in Brussels that lower social class was linked with lower internet use
81% are users, compared to 94% of the middle class
Individuals with low social class tended to focus their technology use on entertainment rather than knowledge and information
79% owned game consoles, compared to 65% for higher social classes
This relationship between social class and the use of internet/digital media may be even greater than the research suggested because of embarrassment to admit low status
Similar results were found in Latin America which shows that social class was more important than other factors (eg age, gender, etc)

Question 73

What did Burgess argue?

Answer 73

Reports on an ongoing research project into the digital divide, and argues that the divide was worsened due to the COVID pandemic
Points out that the using of digital forms of communications requires a range of digital skills as well as access to expensive technology
Concludes that digital exclusion affects a fifth of the UK population, with 8% of people having zero digital skills and 12% being limited in digital skills
Of the 8 million people in the UK without access to the internet, 90% are economically deprived
The pandemic increased the importance of digital social networks, so this has increased the exclusion for 20% of people with limited or no digital skills

Question 74

What is Uber and the gig economy?

Answer 74

Uber is a US tech company founded in 2009 whose mobile app puts customer in touch with taxi drivers or food delivery firms
The largest company operating in the ‘gig economy’ (workers can get work quickly, and only work the hours they choose to work, yet they don’t get paid holidays, pensions, sickness benefits and other legal protections)
Critics claim that the gig economy exploits the poorest workers, giving them no rights and forcing them to work long hours
Uber claims it is just a booking agent and the tai drivers are all self-employed protected, however in 2021 the UK Supreme Court ruled that Uber is in fact an employer and must protect its drivers

Question 75

What did Vicky Rideour find?

Answer 75

Tweens and teens from families that make less than $35,000 year spent nearly two hours more with screen media each day than their peers with incomes over $100,000 - according to new data from media nonprofit Common Sense
Lower-income teens spent more than 8.5 hours a day on smartphones, tablets, video games, and other screen media compared with 6 hours 40 minutes for higher-income peers
This data reflects a number of socio-economic differences, including access to childcare and extracurricular activities
Technology is a cheap form of entertainment (eg clubs, petrol, food etc costs money)

Question 76

What are the general points for digital identity and location?

Answer 76

In general, more affluent countries have greater access to and consumption of the internet, digital media and communication
Some areas of the country do not have high speed broadband, have less opportunities for jobs and a decreased standard of living/spending money
Devices are fashionable and those who cannot afford the newest/top brands can attain less social capital
Finland declared that internet access is a basic human right (13% of the population are offline)

Question 77

Who are the most and least connected global regions?

Answer 77

The most connected global regions are Iceland (90.6%), Sweden (87.8%) and the Netherlands (86.5%) - the least connected global regions are Myanmar (0.2%), Bangladesh (0.3%) and Ethiopia (0.4%)

Question 78

What is the Arab Spring?

Answer 78

Before the revolutions in the Arab world, the use of social media was described as limited and confined to the social elite, mainly due to the fact that access to the internet had been so restricted
However, the events across the Arab world in 2011 brought social media to the forefront, with many claiming that Facebook, twitter and YouTube had an important role to play in the revolutions
ISIS used/is using social media to target enemies and recruit followers, Russia uses cyberwarfare and misinformation, and Trump uses Twitter as a campaign tool

Question 79

What is the case study on Egypt and social media?

Answer 79

Through the spread of information online, internet activists were able to establish networks of resistance with Egyptian political society
Despite the relative weakness of the ties between members of these networks, social media emerged as an effective tool to facilitate collective action
Internet activism made political action easier, faster and more universal than Egypt
Social media became a place where people could express their anxieties an vocalise their feelings, although it wasn’t a complete solution to the problems there

Question 80

What did Sutton, Palen and Shklobski argue?

Answer 80

Argue that the new forms of digital communications are becoming increasingly used when dealing with disasters
The emergent uses of social media suggest the beginnings of broader future changes to the institutional and organisational arrangements of disaster response