global systems and governance Flashcards
global system
refers to any organisation, groupings, or activities that link different parts of the world.
e.g. TNC’s such as nike that operate in more than 1 country.
global governance
refers to attempts to regulate global systems and activities.
for example the UN, IMF and world bank. Their intentions may also have an impact on people and the environment.
globalisation
a process by which national economies, societies and cultures have increasingly integrated through the global network of trade, communication, transport and immigration.
when did globalisation first occur?
1492- Christopher Colombus stumbles across the Americas.
1498- Vasco Da Gama makes a run around Africa. He snatched monopoly rents away from the Arab and venetian spice traders.
After these two events, empires began to form but eventually the British left causing the downfall of many colonies.
economic globalisation
long distance flows of goods, capital and services as well as information and perceptions that accompany market exchanges. Largely caused by the growth of TNC’s.
social globalisation
expressed as the spread of ideas, information, images and people largely. this is fuelled by the growth of social media.
political globalisation
spread of government policies and the influence of international bodies such as the United Nations
when was the second wave of globalisation?
1960s after Canadian Marshall McLuhan used the term global village to describe the breakdown of spatial barriers around the world.
he argued places share more similarities than differences and that much of the world is caught up in the same social, economic and cultural processes.
what did McLuhan suggest about economic activities?
he suggested economic actives operated at a global scale and that other scales become less important.
when was the core-periphery model created?
In 1963 by John Freidmann
what is the core-periphery model?
the model describes spatially how economic, political and cultural authority is spread out in core and periphery regions.
what does the core periphery model suggest?
it suggests that the countries of the world can be divided into two major regions
what is the core?
the core includes major world powers and countries that contain much of the wealth of the planet.
money, resources and people flow into the core from the periphery.
what is the periphery?
contains those that are NOT reaping the benefits of globalisation and global wealth.
how can globalisation be measured?
using the KOF index- an index of degree of globalisation. It takes into account the three dimensions of globalisation and was first devised in 2002.
what are the 3 dimensions of the KOF index?
economic globalisation- measured by flows of trade, FDI and finance.
social globalisation- expressed in terms of ideas, information, images and people. It is measured by personal contact (tourism, international telephone traffic, international letters etc) and information flows such as the no of internet users, TV ownership and finally cultural proximity e.g. no. of McDonald’s restaurants.
political globalisation- characterised by the degree of political cooperation. measured by the no. of embassies, membership of international organisations, no. of international treaties signed.
countries in the top of the KOF index and globalisation score (2010 figures)
- switzerland- 91%
- belgium- 90%
- netherlands- 90%
- sweden- 89%
- UK- 89%
bottom 5 countries on the KOF index
- somalia- 31%
- eritrea- 31%
- afghanistan- 38%
- comoros- 39%
- Central African Republic- 39%
key dimensions/ flows of globalisation
- flows of capital (money + investment)
- flows of labour (migration)
- flows of product (trade + shipping)
- flows of services and flows of information (e.g. social media)
international flows of capital
international flows of capital refers to all financial transfers between companies for investment, trade or production.
what is capital money
capital money is money that is invested, and spent on something that will give firms a return
when was capital flows boosted and why?
in the late 20th century due to deregulation of the financial services, allowing banks and other firms to move more freely across national boundaries. this led to flows of capital between countries. further backing core periphery model
FDI
foreign direct investment
BRIC
Brazil, russia, india, china
MINT
Mexico, indonesia, nigeria and turkey
flows of labour
the movement of workers across national borders. reminder that these migrants may not be considered poor as they have money to move across borders.
remittance
a remittance is a payment of money that is transferred to another party. broadly used to describe a sum of money working abroad that is sent back home.
countries with highest flows of remittances
- US-China= 12.2%
- US-India= 12%
- US-Mexico=22.2%
is globalisation global in terms of migration?
no as there are people moving to seek better work, suggesting there is a better lifestyle elsewhere
flows of services
flows of services are economic activities that aren’t based around material goods e.g. banking and finance
how have flows of products, services and information been increased?
- containerisation
- removal of taxes and tariffs to encourage global trade
- ## improvements in ICT
reasons for globalisation being truly global
- even somalia (bottom of the KOF index) has a score of 31 which suggests some globalisation
reasons against globalisation being truly global
- KOF index shows clear core periphery
- labour flows from the periphery to the core e.g. migrants moving from Mexico to USA
- remittances being sent back to periphery countries e.g. Somalia, remittance= $1.2B, exports= $550m
time-space compression
time space compression refers to the set of processes that cause the relative distances between places (i.e. measured in terms of travel time or cost) to contact, effectively making such places grow ‘closer’.
key factors in shrinking the world
- communication developments
- transport developments
- finanial developements
- trade agreements
when was the first crossing of the Atlantic? by who? where?
- 1919 by Alcock and brown in a WW11 bomber.
- newfoundland- Ireland
when was the airship created?
1937
- regularly took passengers from Germany to New York.
end of 1937 set on fire which ended the era of airships
when was the jumbo jet introduced?
1969
- 700mph roughly
- nowhere in the world no more than a day away
when was Concorde introduced, why did it fail?
- 1969 however crashed into a housing estate
- very expensive tickets
when was the first computer message sent?
1969
how has the car shrunk the world? when was the ford model T introduced?
- 1908 the ford model T was mass produced.
- couldn’t go uphill
when was the ford cortina introduced?
1962- normal sized family car. however no seat belts and seats made of vinyl. was the most popular car of the time
when did the M1 open
1972
when was the first TV broadcast?
1930
containerisation
a system of standardised transport that uses a common size of steel container to transport goods. either 20ft or 40ft.
what was trade like before containerisation?
-slow
- needed dockers to load and unload
- boats idled in ports for up to a week
- made in Britain and became too expensive
- not standardised
what was trade like after containerisation?
- 1956 standardised container to be shipped on lorries, boats and trains
- ports were developed with cranes so didn’t need dockers
- 1960s cellular container ship
- trucks and trains modified
- 10 cents to ship an iPad, 20 cents to ship trainers
- 30 tonnes per hour loaded/ moved before 1.7 tonnes
who developed the modern shipping container and when?
Malcolm mclean in 1950s
- a lorry driver who had to wait for hours for loading and unloading
when was the first container vessel used?
1956 and shipped 50 containers
issues with containerisation
- many boats are too large for ports and cannot fit
- environmental pollution due to oil spills from boats or products themselves falling into the sea
trade bloc
a trade bloc is a group of countries that have joined together to form a trade agreement in order to stimulate trade and gain the economic benefits
4 types of trading agreements from least to most integrated
- free trade area
- customs union
- common market
- economic union
free trade area
free trade area- internal barriers/ tariffs abolished, external barriers maintained. countries outside charged to trade with those in the trading bloc
customs union
internal barriers abolished / tariffs, now with a set of common external barriers e.g. the EU
common market
internal barriers abolished / tariffs, with a set of common external barriers, free movement of labour and resources
economic union
internal barriers abolished / tariffs, with a set of common external barriers, free movement of labour and resources, free movement of MONEY, uniform set of ECONOMIC POLICIES (product regulation)
ASEAN
association of south East Asian nations
- thailand, brunei, cambodia, laos, vietnam, Malaysia, singapore, indonesia, Myanmar, philippines.
MERCOSUR
mercado comandel conosur (southern common market)
free trade agreement
a pact between 2 or more nations to reduce barriers to imports and exports amongst themselves. goods and services can be traded with little/ no tariffs, quotas etc.
quota
physical quantity restriction on imports
tariff
customs/ duty tax paid on imports. makes foreign goods more expensive
advantages of trading blocs
- increase competition. greater choice for consumers
- social and economic unions set high environmental standards
- joining a richer trading bloc can benefit from FDI and incr trade opportunities
- smaller countries more power in global trade agreements
- lower consumer prices
- larger market
disadvantages of trading blocs
- costs money to be in a trading bloc e.g. EU cost UK £960Bn from 2014-2020
- retaliation from non member countries
- no protection for domestic industries
- with free movement can make easier for illegal immigrants to move creating political tensions
- loss of independence and sovereignty
- can be difficult to reach agreements as countries different in culture, wealth, size
how is the world bank involved in the global system?
- sets conditions on its loans such as gov spending cuts
- conditions mean countries turn elsewhere for help such as china. in 2010, china lent $110bn more than the world bank
- represents 186 countries but is run by a small number of HICs.
- focuses too much on GDP rather than living standards
- president is Ajay Banga (Indian born US citizen)
how is the IMF involved in the global system?
- supported military dictators friendly to American and European corporations
- IMF sometimes insists on raising taxes in order to create gov revenue
- IMFs response to crisis often delayed
- curent president kristalina georgieva (Bulgarian)
criticisms of the WTO
- promotes trade however damages the environment
- said to favour the rich and powerful nations
- their main aim of global free trade may widen income inequality rather than bridge the gap
- this is because more powerful markets with have access to weaker ones whilst having little fear of competition such as in the US.
criticisms of the UN
- failure to stop the 2003 US invasion of Iraq
- inability to stop Rwandan genocide 1994
- inability to end the Israel- Palestine genocide
- employs 37,000 people across 193 countries. means its slow to make decisions
arguments for these institutions being effective
- help poorer countries e.g. world banks loaned money to LICs
- no world wars since 1945
- IMF helped UK when liz truss set the mini budget. offered advice
- WTO allows for easier trade, more income= bigger economy
arguments for these institutions being ineffective
- all global systems governed by those living in western HIC countries
- world bank charge huge interest on loans
- UN cannot involve themselves in conflict until shot at
- WTO- poor for environment
interdependance
interdependence between countries means that they are dependant on one another in some way e.g. many developed countries rely on poorer countries for primary products such as coal, iron ore, minerals or food
two types of migration
- voluntary- when a person chooses to move out of their own free will for work or a better life. these people can afford it and its also called economic migration
- forced migration- when a person is forced to leave a country for a variety of reasons. e.g. war, famine, natural hazards, religious of radical persecution
what are the 4 main features of contemporary migration?
- demographic
- environmental
- economic
- health
HDI
the human development index is a composite indicator of development. this means it uses multiple indicators to measure development
what are the 3 measures of the HDI
- gross national income
- adult literacy rate %
- life expectancy in years
gini index
the mini index is used to indicate internal inequality. it creates a score of between 0 and 1 (1 means entire national income goes to one person, 0 means evenly divided).
TPP
trans pacific partnership. 12 countries created in 2005. lowers tariffs, creates e-commerce rules, labour and environment standards
TTIP
transatlantic trade and investment partnership. still under negotiation.
why has the TPP been criticised?
- most gains in income have gone to workers making ore than $87,000 per year.
- free trade agreements contribute to income inequality
- ## free market economies have smallest gains e.g. Australia, Singapore, new Zealand
complaints about the TTIP
- I Europe critics would argue that the EU will have to lower certain standards e.g. permitting imports of GM foods (illegal in EU).
- government procurement- fair and open access to government contracts is supposed to be an essential part of the TTIP. difficult to obtain at a sub-federal level where national gov may have less power to legislate.
- biannual survey concluded support for TTIP fell from 56% may 2015 to 53% November 2015
Mercosur
formed in 1991 and comprises of Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay Paraguay and Venezuela (suspended) and (Bolivia and Ecuador have applied to join). it is a traditional customs union and operates similarly to the EU.
how much is trade increasing by year on year between china and Africa?
19% increase every year
neocolonialism
the use of economic, political, cultural or other pressures to control or influence other countries, especially former dependancies
evidence for chinas relationship with Africa NOT being a new form of neocolonialism
- over half of chinas foreign aid given to Africa
- Chinese funded infrastructure, schools, hospitals
- in 2014 china invested £56bn into African infrastructure
- china has the most peacekeepers in Africa of the UN security members, with more than 2000 troops in Congo and Sudan
- cobalt is rich in Africa which is used to make phones
evidence for chinas relationship with Africa being a new form of neocolonialism
- china- africa bilateral trade pattern involves mainly raw materials leaving Africa and finished goods coming back
- in angola, Chinese construction firms have built an entire city (nova cicade de kilamba) that still stands empty
- 1 million Chinese now live in Africa
- since chinas open door policy was launched in 2008, it has needed to secure the raw materials needed to sustain its economic growth.
fairtrade
fair trade (1992) is a social movement to try and achieve better trading conditions and promote sustainability. commodities include coffee, tea, cocoa, fruit and bananas. traditionally it is products which are exported from developing countries to richer nations.
what does fair-trade do?
- sets social, environmental and economic standards
- set a fairtrade minimum price and fair-trade premium to invest in business or community projects of their choice e.g. clean water, education etc
- certifies products and ingredients
- advocate for higher prices for producers
- gives producers more influence in global markets
benefits of fairtrade
- empowers small business owners to had no voice over bargaining
- the movement has supported organic production
- majority of producers are satisfied with fairtrade systems
- allowed small producers to become competitive
- a minimum wage is granted to farmers and workers
- producers participating in fairtrade schemes have seen their income increased
- wider consumer choice
- created specific programs to protect women
negatives of fair-trade
- difficult to make sure that abusive labour practices are not reintroduced after certifications are expired or abandoned.
- need regulating- some markets in Uganda and Ethiopia were seen to have very low pay after a study was carried out by the university of London
- fairtrade often creates divides in communities as some farmers do not qualify
- keeping the accreditation can be expensive and may be out of reach for some local entrepreneurs
- movement is still reduced in scope as consumers can only buy a few fairtrade products
- for some companies the goal is to increase profit so may be using certifications as market tools to regain brand reputation
- products are often more expensive in shops and therefore consumers opt for alternatives
how many cups of coffee are consumed daily?
2 million
revenue from coffee in 2023
$95 billion
how is coffee grown?
- coffee grows in hot wet areas close to the equator e.g. Caribbean, Africa, Asia, South America
- two main types of coffee:
- arabica - usually higher quality and more expensive to produce. mainly found South America and Eastern Africa. approx. 70% of world coffee production.
- robusta - cheaper and found in Western Africa and Asia - coffee plants grown in nurseries, and after 6-12 months are moved to farms where they produce beans used to make coffee.
- most coffee grown on smallholdings rather than large plantations
which countries dominate coffee production?
- Brazil
- colombia
- vietnam
- indonesia
- ethiopia
issues in coffee production
- plants can be susceptible to a wide range of disease e.g. bacterial blight and coffee leaf rust, both harm leaves and prevent growth. coffee berry disease kills beans within a matter of days
- lots of insects and pests such as the black twig borer, native to Asia, tunnels into coffee plant and destroys
- certain weather events make outbreak more likely bacterial blight spread mostly in wet winter
- fertilisers and pesticides used have to imported, making them expensive
what is coffees importance to the global economy?
- Starbucks is the largest coffee chain globally, with an annual rev of $35 billion in 2023
- 25 million producers rely on coffee for a living
- 56% of US adults drink coffee, 66 billion cups per year
who produces coffee and who drinks it?
producers:
1. Brazil - 3,558,000 tonnes/ year (NEE)
2. vietnam- 1,830,000 (NEE)
3. colombia- 856,000 t/ year (NEE)
consumers:
1. Finland - 40 pounds/ capita
2. norway
3. Iceland
4. netherlands
5. Sweden
how much of the price of fairtrade coffee goes to farmers?
7-10% as they only sell the unprocessed bean which is low in value
why is coffee dominated by TNC’s?
- TNCs roast the coffee bean, increasing its value therefore receiving most of the profit
- TNCs can choose who to buy coffee from. coffee producing companies compete with each other to cut wages, labour regulations and environmental standards to attract TNCs. can cause farmers to go out of business.
what is a TNC?
a transnational corporation is a large firm operating in several countries
- has its HQ in a HIC in a global city such as London, Beijing etc
- they all have several production plants across the world
outsourcing
act of purchasing alternative goods/ services from cheaper locations rather than locally. it may include developing manufacturing processes to a third party (sub-contracting).
how do TNCs expand operations?
- mergers
- aquisitions
- sub contracters- products made in factories they may not own
- FDI
how to TNCs gain more control over markets?
- vertical integration - merging with other areas of the supply chain
- horizontal integration - takes over another company at the same stage of production e.g. Disney took over Pixar studios
positives of TNCs
- nike employs over 1 mil workers in 51 countries, providing wealth and oppertunity
- offer larger range of consumer choice
- positive multiplier effect meaning TNCs can provide roads, infrastructure etc
- becoming increasingly environmentally aware
- teach local people new skills which they can use in jobs or teach others
- generally pay 10-100% more than local wage rates
- invest in economies of LICs to improve living standards
- TNCs responsible for the wealth divide. e.g. investing heavily in regions such as south east Asia but ignoring sub saharan area
negatives of TNCs
- profits dont generally remain within the country of manufacture
- can avoid paying full taxes. this affects services gov can provide for locals
- outsourcing means TNCs exploit cheap labour- workers therefore payed badly
- TNCs are FOOTLOOSE and can move their operations out of a country immediately. this would create mass unemployment and uncertainty
- eroding of culture and diversity
- over 90% of TNCs have their HQs in the developed world
- huge environmental degradation- 1984 bhipol India methyl gas leak killing thousands
- workers have little job security. can be sacked at any point
- many workers work over 100 hours per week for approx 65p per day
- poor safety. injury from machines
who are apple TNC?
producer and retailer of computer technology and mobile electronic devices. it is a US based TNC with HQ based in California
when was apple founded
1st April 1976
apple revenue (2024)
$2.6 trillion
where are the Apple Inc HQs?
Cupertino, California
apple revenue 2023
$383.285B
how many stores does apple have in how many countries?
450 stores in 16 countries
how many full time employees does apple have?
161,000 (2023)
where are apples products designed?
Silicon Valley, California
where is the European HQ for apple? how many employees are there?
Cork, ireland.
- only fully owned apple manufacturing facility in the world
- 400 employees
production of apple
- where are apple products produced? (iPhones and iPads)
made mostly in china by Foxconn, a Taiwan based company. there are over 140,000 workers in the factory.
how did Foxconn recieve the contract for apple? what are the wages?
competed with other companies for the highest price which brought down production costs.
- wages are $150-$200 / month (higher than minimum wage)
what is the impact of apple in cork, ireland?
- 4000 workers, 2500 indirect jobs
- attracted other high tech forms to cork
- attracted highly skilled workforce, provided investment for R & D
- many workers foreign nations from EU
- at least 60% workers Irish
- made cork more diverse
why is having HQ in Ireland better than in the UK?
government tax in ireland is 12.5% compared to corporation tax of 25% in England
what has been the impact of apple in china?
- in 2006, reported than 200,000 workers from the shenzen factory were working over 60 hours per week for $100/ month. half of their pay took up living expenses
- in 2010 50 workers poisoned by toxic chemical used to clean screens. was in lianjian factory (subcontracted by Foxconn) in suzhou.
- Foxconn uses students and children as part of objective to lower costs. under 18s are subjected to the same working conditions.
- in 2009 there were 14 suicides at Foxconn due to severe conditions
- apple now audit factories more often
apple’s impact on the environment
- largely criticised by greened on 4 main areas:
1. lack of recyclability of products
2. reliance on non renewable resources to supply electrics to centres
3. use of toxic chemicals such as PVC
4. factories in china discharging toxic metals in the local water supply
apples response to criticisms by Greenpeace
- now uses 75% renewable electricity
- removed PVC chemicals from plastics
- as a result has moved up from 11 to 6 in the Greenpeace ranking
global governance
the ways in which affairs affecting the whole world are managed
what is the focus of global governance?
- civil conflict
- reduction of poverty
- trade and investment inequality
- human rights violations
- reduce environmental issues
- financial stability
what are the global commons?
global commons have been traditionally defined as those parts of the planet that fall outside jurisdictions and to which all nations have access. they include resources shared by all but not controlled by any single nation
what are the 4 global commons the law identifies
- Antarctica
- the high seas
- the atmosphere
- other space
however increasingly the internet/ cyber space is being considered a global common
why do global commons need governing?
- plastics
- overfishing
- global warming
- climate regulation
- weather events
principle of common heritage
international law with the global commons is guided by the principal of common heritage
the principle establishes that some localities belong to all humanity and the resources that are available are for everyone’s benefit, even if they don’t directly take part in their exploitation
tragedy of the commons
the phrase tragedy of the commons describes how shared environmental resources are overused and eventually depleted
how do ice sheets occur?
result from small input at snow and frost (which far exceeded ablation rates) over a very long time
ablation
overall net. melting. the opposite of accumulation
accumulated ice - ice that is melting
nunatak
an exposed, rocky element of a ridge, mountain or peak not covered with ice or snow within (or at the edge of) an ice field or glacier. also called glacial islands. very few areas in Antarctica are free from nunataks
what marks the outer edge of Antarctica?
the antarctic convergence zone (ACZ)
what is the ACZ?
a natural 40m wide boundary that separates two distinct hydrological regions of warm and cold water. the cold water is fresh non saline water from Antarctica. the warm water is coming towards Antarctica and is saline from the equator.
what happens at the ACZ as the warm and cold water meet?
- sea water that has cooled around antarctic continent becomes heavier and starts to flow northward along the sea bed
- it meets warmer south flowing water from equatorial regions at the Atlantic convergence which results in upwelling of the deep waters to the surface
- this beings many dissolved nutrients with it which acts as a fertiliser for the southern ocean and is the reason that seas around Antarctica are productive despite the cold temperatures.
what are some of the key threats to Antarctica?
- sewage spills
- weapons testing by developed countries
- mining for valuable metals such as gold
- increase in whaling
- global climate change
- disturbance to wildlife such as seals and whales and penguins
- new runways for aircrafts being built for potential commercial tourism
- oil pollution from large ships
- increase in fishing for krill and fish
- rubbish and litter from scientific bases
- increase in number of tourists
- development of old bases as living museums
- extraction of resources below the ice
- increase in number of scientists
what are the 4 main threats to Antarctica?
- climate change
- fishing and whaling
- tourism and scientific research
- scientific research alone
when was the first permanent research base established?
1898
how many staff are there in Antarctica at its peak? how many in the winter?
10,000 at its peak, 1000 in its winter (jan-august)
how many bases are there in Antarctica? how many staff per base
40 permanent bases. 50 staff per base with 15-20 in winter.
how many airports in Antarctica?
26 airports
when was the marimbo base oil spill?
July 1995, 21,000 gallons of oil spilled from poorly constructed fuel storage base
when was a French runway built and what was the issuew with it?
1987, ran through a breeding base for birds
how much krill was fished at its peak? what year was this?
500,000 tonnes in 1981/82
how much krill is fished today?
100,000 tonnes per year
what are the main uses of krill?
- rich in omega-3 so used for dietary supplements such as oil capsules
- used to flavour pet and livestock food as they have a strong fish flavour
how much has the antarctic peninsula warmed in the last 50 years?
3°C in 50 years, 3 times higher than the global average of 0.9°C
what are the effects of warming on the antarctic peninsula?
- distribution of penguin colonies has changed
- melting of perennial snow and ice covers has lead to increased colonisation by plants
- long term decrease in the abundance of antarctic krill
- glaciers such as the thwaites glacier have melted
since 2009 how much ice has melted from Antarctica every year? how much different is this from the 1980s?
278 billion tonnes per year
- 1980s was 44bn tonnes per year
which ice sheets are melting?
- Wilkins ice shelf in the antarctic peninsula
- Ronne- filcher ice shelf (size almost as large as Spain)
are these ice sheets meeting the main concern?
ice shelves melting has little impact on sea level rise, however ice shelves melting has had an effect on accelerating the melting of glaciers
where is the thwaites glacier?
western Antartica
how big is it?
12km across western Antarctica- size of Florida
- as high as a 6 storey building
- the glacier reaches into the centre of west Antarctica which makes it a threat
why is west Antarctica melting faster than west Antarctica?
west is below sea level, the east is not. therefore the west is melting faster due to being warmed by the water
why is the thwaites glacier a threat to antarctica?
- there is a cavity in the glacier which if water gets into will trigger much faster melting of the glacier causing it all to fully melt as well as the whole of western Antarctica
- trigger a potential doomsday scenario causing countries such as Netherlands, Bangladesh to be submerged
- will contribute 4% to global sea level rise
how much has the grounding point of the thwaites glacier retreated since 1982?
14km
how has the number of tourists in Antarctica changed from 2002-2023
- 2002/03= 13,000 on foot tourists, 17,000 on boats
- 2022/23= 71,000 on foot, 1000,000 on cruises
Background to the mount Erebus crash:
- when was it?
- where did the plane take off from?
- how long was the flight due to take?
- why did the plane crash?
- 28th November 1979
- took off from Auckland, new Zealand
- 11 hours, 4 hours over Antarctica
- ended up being in the atmosphere during a whiteout, pilot couldn’t see and as he was flying close to the ground for tourists he flew into mount Erebus, killing all 257 passengers on board
impacts of tourism on wildfire
- invasive species can be brought in on clothes such as bugs and insects which could disrupt ecosystems
- birds made anxious by tourists causing them to abandon their nests, there have been records of birds that have previously nested that no longer nest there
- general code is that tourists should go no nearer to animals than 5m
who are the IAATO and what do they do?
IAATO stands for the international association for antarctic tour operations. they advocate for safe and environmentally responsible tourism.
- restrain vessels from landing with more than 500ppl
- no more than 1 vessel at a landing site at one time
- no more than 100 ppl ashore at once
- staff to passenger ratio is 1:20 maintained at all times
who owns Antarctica?
officially no one and no claims have been made since 1959
what is the antarctic treaty?
the antarctic treaty is an agreement signed by 12 nations in which the antarctic continent was made a demilitarised zone to be preserved for scientific research
