Global systems and global governance Flashcards
(84 cards)
1
Q
What is the definition of globalisation?
A
- It is a process that involves the trading of culture, money, goods, and information on a global and international scale
- It involves links and connections between countries that change over time and it is different in different areas
2
Q
How has the rate of globalization changed over time and why?
A
- The rate of globalization has steadily speeded up and grown over time
- This leads to impacts both positively and negative on the economic, environmental and social sides
- It has steadily increased over time due to factors such as immigration, technological and social developments, and increased trading
3
Q
What does the idea of the ‘global village’ mean?
A
- It was an ideology created by Canadian philosopher Marshall McLuhan in the 1960’s
- It is the idea that there would be free information and the economy flowing and everyone would think on an international scale, and there would be international actions and decisions if the world was fully globalized
4
Q
How does interdependence impact globalization rates?
A
- Interdependence is the reliance of countries on other countries and the global economy
- Connections need to be made internationally between countries for globalization to be fully in effect.
5
Q
What is international trade and what does it do?
A
- It allows for a ‘world economy’, meaning that global events affect the demands and supplies of resources
- Trade has grown from US$100 billion in 1956 to US$19 trillion alone in manufactured goods
- It is the exchange of goods across countries internationally and includes imports and exports.
6
Q
What are the different systems and factors that make up globalization?
A
- Different factors include economy, goods, communication, and information
- The focus of globalization has been primarily on the economic relationships such as international trade, foreign direct investment, and international capital flows
- The different factors that form their own systems and make up the globalization process are the economy, politics, society, culture, technology, and the environment
7
Q
What does the ‘global community’ mean?
A
- We are all interconnected socially through transport, culturally through international migration, and also economically through trading flows
- These all make up the global community
8
Q
What is containerization?
A
- It is the movement of container ships internationally around the world
- it is cheaper, faster, and easier to use one universal container size for transportation
9
Q
What is scale and what are the different types of scale?
A
- Scale is a measure of the size in quantity or the length in magnitude of something
- Micro is a small scale and macro is a larger scale
10
Q
What are some of the disadvantages of dimensions?
A
Some countries have corrupt governments and migration may be illegal. Inflations can affect the global economy. There are technology hackers and natural hazards and disasters in certain countries etc.
11
Q
What are the different factors of production?
A
They include:
- Land and natural resources
- Capital and the flow of investments
- Labor and number of skilled workers
- Businesses, enterprise and organizations
12
Q
How are production and consumption patterns distributed?
A
- Globalization created a new international division of labor with two main classes
- The highly skilled are higher paid and are researching and managing on a global scale, and the unskilled and poorly paid assembly occupations which are usually located in less developed countries and areas
- The invention of the computer has increased relations and trading in the flow of production
13
Q
How has the division of globalisation changed over time?
A
- The division in globalization has drastically changed in recent years
- Countless countries that used to be classified as less developed nations have become Newly Industrialized Countries
- Those countries have developed their own industrial and commercial bases with their own transnational cooperation’s
14
Q
How have manufacturing and technology usage rates changed over time?
A
- In 1954, around 95% of manufacturing was concentrated in the industrial economies of Western Europe, North America, and Japan.
- Over time, deindustrialization has occurred, as a result of direct investment by TNC’s into those developing countries
- This allows TNC’s to take over manufacturing at a cheaper price
15
Q
How has deindustrialization increased over time and affected the UK?
A
- Global shift has resulted in deindustrialization in the richer countries and a loss of jobs in the manufacturing sector
- Employment in manufacturing in the UK fell by 50% from 1983 – 2013
- More than 50% of all manufacturing jobs are located in the developing world. Outdated production encourages this decline
16
Q
How has manufacturing increased over time?
A
Manufacturing transfers around the world with great ease. Factors affecting the location choice of entrepreneurs of some of the largest manufacturing companies include:
- Availability of skilled workforces
- Opportunity for building new plants with the latest and most productive technology
- Access to large markets without tariff barriers enables trade agreements
17
Q
How have flows of products changed over time?
A
- The International movement of production facilitated for developing countries by the reduction of the cost of trade, which included transaction costs, tariffs, and transport
- Transport and time costs have been reduced by the process of containerization, which has enabled more complex and long-distance flows of productions
- Air transport speeds up the delivery and reduces the cost of more valuable goods
18
Q
What are services?
A
- The services are economic activities that are traded without the production of material goods e.g. Financial or insurance services
- High level services are services to businesses such as finance, investments, and advertising and low levels services are services to consumers such as banking, travel and tourism, customer call centers and communication services
- They are footloose, meaning that they can be located anywhere
19
Q
How does technology affect services?
A
- Technology allows them to serve customers on a worldwide scale
- Deregulation in the 70’s and 80’s meant that there was an improvement in ICT, opening up markets in other countries
- Low level services are located in LIC’s and high-level services are located in HIC’s
20
Q
How have flows of capital changed over time?
A
- Capital includes the money that moves between countries which is investment, used in trade or production
- Flows of finance and capital show capital experienced in the global economy, and it is based on the Frank and Wallerstein’s model of a world system
- Rapid growth of medium income countries e.g. BRIC (Brazil, Russia, India, China) and MINT (Mexico, Indonesia, Nigeria, Turkey) countries has occurred
21
Q
What is diaspora?
A
- Diaspora is a large group of people with similar heritage who moved somewhere else in the world
- Economic leakages are losses of income from the economic system and this refers to profit from TNC’s sent back to their base
- Money can now be moved around the world and ICT allows companies to work on a global scale. In the late 20th Century, there was a deregulation on the world financial markets which meant that investment companies could invest in overseas markets
22
Q
What is FDI?
A
- This is an investment made mainly by TNC’s and it is based in one country into the physical capital or assets of foreign employment in foreign enterprises
- Companies make an overseas investment by setting up subsidiary companies and corporations
- Repatriation is the sending back of money to one’s country also known as remittances
23
Q
What is aid and what are the different types?
A
- Instant support for poorer countries is an aid, and it can be provided from the UN contributions or from richer countries
- Bilaterally from a government to another government, and multilateral aid involves contributions from certain countries to be redistributed
- Tied aid is giving money strictly for a certain purpose and then NGOs are the other types of aid
24
Q
Migration and remittances benefits and costs?
A
Positive:
- Majority is ‘out’ migration from poorer to richer countries
- Pay is higher in richer countries than in poorer countries
- Transfers of money made by foreign workers to home country
- India receives the highest remittances from its Diaspora
Negatives:
- Negatives for poorer countries include losing their most talented workers
25
What are the different flows of information?
- Information is governed by the movement of people through migrations and the speed of data and communication transfers
- Both are responsible for the transfer of cultural ideas, language, and design
- Digitalism and satellite technology have changed the flows of international information and this is supported by improvements to global telephone and networks
26
How have the flows of information changed over time?
Mobile telecommunication technology, email, and the internet have enabled large amounts of information to be transferred across the world, and live media coverage, journalism, and newspapers help with this
27
What are the different flows of global marketing and how have they been?
- Flows of information contribute to knowledge of goods and services
- Goods and services include those which require a lot of research and development and to use highly skilled and useful educated information
- Global marketing is the process of promoting, advertising, and selling products and services
28
What is the aim and goal of global marketing?
- The goal is to sell the same product in the same way in every country everywhere
- A country or company becomes a global marketeer when it can create products that fit certain country's and it sees the world as one big market
- State led investments occur which can promote and sell products on a global scale
29
What are flows of Labor?
- This is the net global movement of people migrating to find work around the world internationally
- Most migrants move between the same region or between adjacent regions and regions nearby
- There are many barriers to the flows of Labor however including language barriers, immigration laws, conflict, and money and finance problems and issues
30
What happened to Somalia in 2012?
- 40% of Somalians need remittances to meet their basic needs daily, according to the world bank
- Remittances make up 50% of the GNI and 80% of all total investment in the country and Germany and the US are the main investors in Somalia as it has huge potential for natural resources and production such as hydrocarbons, livestock and fishing and agriculture
- In 2012 there was a concern that peoples remittances money was being used by terrorist groups which led to many UK and US banks and trading agencies withdrawing from their services and investments in Somalia
31
What are the concerns of international financial institutions?
- There is not much regulation from the government, which would be useful in ensuring that remittances are fair and that financial institutions actually do bring equality in NEEs
- There need to be more laws enforced by the government against money laundering
- There was a 40% increase in migration from 2000 to 2015, including forced and voluntary migration
32
How have transport costs changed over time?
- The cost of shipping has decreased because ships transport 90% of our goods and ships have gotten bigger and their fuel efficiency has increased
- Almost all goods are now shipped and containerized causing standardization
- Supply chains are now global, now allowing for now mass production of goods
33
How do trade agreements benefit trade?
- They help trading partners and they help reduce chances of conflict as they're independent
- Trade agreements remove barriers to trade, this includes global trade and the flows of goods
- NATO is an example of a group coming together for common good and to promote capitalism
34
How is there different rates of migration globally?
- The majority of flows of migration from places like India move to places such as Asia and the USA and many people from Asia move to countries such as Saudi Arabia as it is really rich
- Many developing NEE countries and migrants from countries such as Africa move to countries such as the USA and Europe
- The majority of flows from Central and South America go from Central to North America and then the minority of flows go to Europe
35
What ere the different push factors that can cause migration within a country?
- War and conflict move people away as they need to find safety, security and shelter
- An unsafe environment can push people away as they need to find a place where they will be safe with wildlife, no pollution, and where sewage is properly dealt with
- If the economy is unstable it can cause people to move away
36
What are the different pull factors that can cause migration within a country?
- If there is a better wage for higher quality jobs in a certain country that attracts immigration
- If there is better educational systems where families children can get a higher quality education that will attract families immigrating
- Higher employment rates increase immigration too
37
What are remittances and what are their importances?
- Money comes from family that is working and is sent home to help with weddings, food, health, education, money, and jobs
- The USA sent $131 billion worth of remittances in 2014
- However there are still many barriers to remittances, and governments need to relax restrictions on small remittances and illegal recruitment of fees need to be stopped
38
What are the benefits of globalization?
- Economists and people who make more money from it find it beneficial and lucrative
- Globalization extends activity across the globe, increases international networks, and it increases flows and interactions between places and societies
- Global markets and finance are helped by free flows of capital and trade, and most international organizations contribute to it and help with FDI
39
What are the negatives of globalization?
- It can cause global environmental problems that need global solutions
- As financial systems and trade unions may become stronger, the nations state may decline with losses in tax
- Whilst globalization is increasing, some countries are excluded as they attract no foreign direct investment or TNC's, and these countries become more poor
40
What do the UK government do to increase exports?
- To do this, the UK have the UK Trade and Investment Department (UKTI) which offers support and advice for all aspects of trade in the UK
- They encourage businesses to trade their goods overseas
- The UKTI saves exporters time and transport costs because all shipping arrangements and customs are completed locally before goods are shipped
41
How has there been financial changes?
- Deregulation of financial markets allows for removal of barriers by government to movement of finance
- Communication technology has made international trading faster and easier
- Electronic trading and global exchange connectivity mean that financial transactions between importers and exporters are easily completed
42
What are the improvements in transportation?
- Products and commodities can be shipped easier and in larger quantities
- The development of technology has helped increase international trade
- The size of things transporting the goods also improves the transportation rates
43
How have security rates improved over time?
- The World Customs Organization (WCO) has created a 'secure operator' label
- This is awarded to operators that meet the EU minimum standard of security and these measures have tightened security for businesses
- It increases cost for shipments of goods
44
How have company investments improved over time?
- A production revolution has changed how companies manufacture products and distribute them, and processes of production are newer
- Investments have global value chains, where different stages of production process are located in different countries
- The global production network of international organizations covers inter-relationships to support worldwide flows
45
What is JIT in technology?
- The management of global production networks demands remote management of production and distribution lines, which have been enabled by information technology
- Just In Time (JIT) technology means greater efficiency in the supply chain of manufacturing and costs are cut by reducing quantities of goods and material held in stock
- This helps more marketing online and systems increasing cost efficiency have have led to separation between high order activities and low order activities
46
How are the advantages and disadvantages of being part of groups?
- When in a group, you can easily get protection and you can work harder together and you can gain more money and ideas
- There is more productivity and resources
- Competition between members can get out of control and people can be exploited, as well as unfair or disproportionate money use
47
What do global scales do?
- They increase peace and security and they also increase global trade and they help economies and peoples standards of living
- Centralized decisions can be a drawback and certain economic areas and sectors are damaged, and there may be pressure to adopt certain legislations
48
What do regional scales do?
- They help each other to compete on a global scale and they also represent each other on a global scale
- There is freedom and trade movement and they allow people to move between countries more easily, as well as negotiating trade and technology with other groups
- However, there can be loss of financial control and there can be pressure to adopt certain legislations
49
What are the roles of global institutions?
- They provide global economic stability and free trade
- They promote global trade and development
- They have international summits to discuss events such as climate change
50
What are top down developments?
- They are big schemes and decisions made by national governments
- Local people don't get involved with the process and they rely on machinery rather than a workforce and generally also require aid and money support
- As resources are taken for the project, money is taken from the World Bank and they use cheaper fuels
51
What are bottom up developments?
- Projects that are controlled and planned by local communities
- They aren't very expensive as they use more reliable technology
- The environmental damage is much less than top down schemes and it is on a smaller scale
52
What does the IMF do?
- The International Monetary Fund (IMF) looks at the entire global financial system on a global scale and it offers financial support but only when really needed
- It only gives loans if it prevents a crisis and it helps tackle balance of payments deficits and stability problems
- The IMF has been known to cut education and welfare spending by governments in developing countries
53
What does the WTO do?
- Deals with global rules of trade between countries and it is responsible for managing international trade
- It helps reduce trade barriers and it reduces trade problems between governments
- It reaches international agreements that become legal rules for commerce and it provides stability for trading nations
54
What are some of the problems and successes with the WTO?
- The USA, EU, and Japan wanted larger trading nations for developing economies to grow their markets to manufactured goods
- Emerging nations still need cuts on tariffs to protect their workers
- Between EU and Latin America an agreement was reached to end a trade dispute about banana trade, and this was a bilateral trade agreement
55
What is outsourcing?
- This is a strategy to save costs by companies by arranging for products or services to be produced by other companies where costs are lower
- it provides much more investment and employment but removes this from more less economically developed countries
- The skills of set local workers is no longer compatible so they lose their jobs
56
What inequalities are there between countries?
- As communication and transport flows and links are internationally improved, some other countries are left behind
- The fastest growing economies continue to be in Asia and although countries in Saharan Africa have a large gap to make up in living standards their economies are now more growing quickly than most developed countries
57
What is the Gini coefficient?
- This is a measure of income inequality that measures the entire income distribution for a single country into a single number between 0 to 1
- The higher the number, the greater the scale of income inequality
58
What are the different barriers to trade?
- A barrier to trade is a government imposed restriction on the international flow of goods and services
- Free trade has depleted protectionism, but it is still used by governments to protect new industries
- Import quotas set physical limits on the quantity of goods that can be imported into a country and subsidies are grants awarded to domestic producers to reduce their costs and make them more competitive against imported goods
59
What are embargoes and subsidies
- Subsidies are grants awarded to domestic producers to reduce their costs and make them more competitive against imported goods
- Voluntary export restraints is a diplomatic strategy offered by the exporting country to appease the importing country and deter it from imposing trade barriers
- Embargoes involve the partial or complete prohibition of commerce and trade with a particular country and they are usually put into practice for political and not commercial reasons
60
What is the USA and China trade war?
- The USA and China have both imposed billions of dollars worth of tariffs on each others goods because Donald Trump accused China of unfair trading and China believes the USA is only trying to increase its global influence
- Trump’s policy aims to impose tariffs that encourage consumers to buy American products by making imported goods more expensive
- The US has imposed tariffs on more than $360 billion of Chinese goods, and China has retaliated with tariffs on more than $110 billion of US products
61
What are the effects of international trade?
- Developing countries such as MINT ones are now some of the fastest growing and Mexico has an annual 4% economic growth
- Free trade lowers consumer prices, and this gives access to larger markets for TNCs and allows for greater competition
- It allows access to cheaper raw materials for TNCs and developed economies still have tariffs on agricultural imports and there is exploitation of poor working conditions
62
How has the volume and pattern of international trade developed?
- Due to the increase in flows of factors over time such as capital and production, the global trade framework has been strengthened by GATT (General Agreement on Trade and Tariff)
- In 1995, GATT was replaced by the WTO and this lowered the barriers of trade internationally with global free trade as an aim
- World trade has increased at a faster rate than global economic development, and international trade flows have expanded and eased
63
How has investment differentiated over the years?
- FDI has helped fund for developments in all countries and its difficult to increase economic growth without a giving of capital, whether countries are rich or poor
- Each year more than 1$US trillion in FCI flows into countries around the world, but this distribution is never equal
- Some countries have natural resources that attract foreign investments, and the size of their markets and population attracts FDI too
64
What have SDT's done?
- Special and differential trade agreements (SDT) have been a feature of the multilateral trading system and they help newly independent nations especially
- However protectionist policies can exclude developing countries from trading more freely with developed nations
- The EBA 'Everything But Arms' initiative was introduced in 2001 under the EU and it grants LECs quota free access to almost all products
65
What are the disadvantages of SDTs?
- Not all countries are part of the WTO and it can be hard to apply for the WTO, despite trade promoting economic development is less developed countries
- SDT methods still need to be made much more effective and operational, and some LECs aren't fully aware of SDTs
- LDCs can't always make effective use of SDTs just yet and some SDTs don't fit the conditions of the LDC
66
What is the Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership?
- TTIP is a free trade agreement negotiated by the USA and EU which aims to reduce regulatory barriers to fair trade
- Many Non Governmental Organizations oppose the agreement for social and environmental reasons, and people are worried that it will give more power to more influential TNCs which will undermine democracy
- Some people say that it will threaten public privacy and consumer protection
67
What is the main role of TNCs?
- These are companies that operate internationally and have a headquarters, whilst TNCs work in different economic sectors
- There are many TNCs based in NEEs or LICs where there are global companies located, and TNCs aim to find the lowest cost for their products
- They always try to reach out to more foreign markets, in order to exploit resources only available in other countries to develop their products
68
What is the significance of Latin America?
- Latin America has two trading BLOC's, the Mercosur and Pacific Alliance agreement, and the Mercosur was formed in 1991 and involves Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay, Uruguay, and Venezuela
- It is a traditional customs union which operates very similar to the EU and it allows free movement of labor between the member states, and it allows trade globally
- The Pacific Alliance was formed in 2001 and involves Mexico, Chile, Peru, and Colombia and it only makes bilateral agreements and only sees the USA and Asia as its main market
69
What constitutes up Antarctica's basic physical features?
- Antarctica is the fifth largest continent and less than 5% of its land is free of ice, and on average the ice is around 2,000 m thick
- Antarctica has temperatures ranging from around -9 at lowest in summer to around - 68 at lowest in winter
- Precipitation levels are low and there are extremely high winds, the highest record being up to around 327 km/h
70
What are the Antarctic Convergence Zones?
- This is where cold north flowing Antarctic waters meet with warmer southern waters which is known as a convergence zone
- It varies in different longitudes and latitudes based on seasonal change, and it forms areas of upwelling currents which are very high in marine nutrients
- The Antarctic Convergence Zone is a natural boundary rather than an artificial one like a line of latitude and it separates two distinct hydrological regions, areas of distinct climate, and areas of distinct wildlife
71
What is the climate like in Antarctica?
- Antarctica is a unique continent as its mountainous and has rocky terrain which is around 97% covered by glacial ice and the continent is unevenly divided between the East and West Antarctica by Transantarctic mountains
- The Transantarctic range peaks around 4,000 meters and is divided by the East and West ice sheets, although the Eastern ice sheet is both thicker and older
- Precipitation levels are low, ranging from 70mm to 400mm
72
What different flaura and fauna is there in Antarctica?
- It is estimated that there are around 100 million bird species, from 35 species of seabird that live along the coast and offshore islands
- Antarctica has 6 species of seal, and around 15 million elephant seals
- There are around 8 species of whales although many of the microorganisms and plants are highly vulnerable from the impact of human activity
73
What are the politics, rules and regulations over Antarctica?
- No civilians actually live in Antarctica although there are small populations of scientists and there are around on average a population of 10,000 scientists
- Seven countries lay claim to territories in Antarctica, including the UK, Argentina and Chile who want to discover, explore and claim natural resources
- In the 1950s, more scientists became interested in Antarctica, so more scientists became preoccupied in protecting the region and creating a system of control and as a result the 1959 Antarctic Treaty was created and signed by the seven claiming nations
74
What Non Governmental Organizations are in Antarctica?
- Antarctica has been a long interest for NGOs due to its very unique features and Greenpeace had a permanent base from 1987 to 1991
- The WWF campaigned to have Antarctica as a designated World Park
- The Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition (ASOC) which is a global coalition of over 1000 environmental NGOs has worked since 1978 to ensure that Antarctica stays protected
75
What human activity and scientific research is going on in Antarctica?
- There are around 40 permanent scientific bases, 26 airports and 53 helicopters, and many bases occupy the limiting breeding space of penguins and birds
- Ships resupply resources for scientists, and in January 1989 the Bahia Paraiso ship dropped by accident around 250,000 gallons of oil into the seal
- In July 1995, approximately 21,000 gallons of oil were spilled too and similar incidents have occurred on other bases, including Russian and US bases, and many of the bases are accessed by air, which in turn requires the construction of runways
76
What mineral exploitation has been taking place?
- Lots of coal have been found along the continent’s coasts and in the mountains, but activity in mining so far has however been deterred by a lack of commercially viable quantities and the technical difficulties of working in extreme conditions
- With the current global demand for energy and resources, there will be increasing demand in the future, and the Weddell and Ross sea are regarded to hold the greatest potential of oil
- Under law of the Sea Convention, claims can be made to up to 350 miles off existing territories and the UK made a claim in October 2007 stating that it was a safeguard for the future
77
What is bioprospecting?
- Antarctica fish are highly wanted and valued by biotechnology companies that invest in new medicines or products from living organisms
- These companies are interested in the way some species use anti-freeze protein in their blood to prevent them from freezing
their blood to prevent them from freezing
- They also are studying how fish of the Southern Ocean can slow their heartbeat, saving energy during the winter, and there are already 92 applications for patents that use the Antarctic organisms in the USA, and there are 62 in Europe
78
How can we protect Antarctica and mitigate the impacts we have?
- Resilience is the amount of change an ecosystem can withstand without changing process or the structures
- Adaptation is the adjustment of an organism or species to help it survive a changing environment
- The concepts of resilience, mitigation, and adaptation relate to the survival of species and maintaining biodiversity and these need to be monitored and researched by scientific researchers from projects such as the Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR)
79
In what ways do ecosystems show resilience?
- Ecosystems need to be able to return to the normal equilibrium after damages and disturbances and this helps animals adapt to the changing conditions of ecosystems
- Natural events test the resilience of an ecosystem including longevity of sea birds, adaptation of plant life - Intense storms which can affect local areas or large areas such as ‘scouring’ of the benthic environment can impact on species and test how quick species recover
80
What happened at Agenda 21?
- This is where the Earth summit was first held in Rio in 1992, and it is a major UN conference gathering countries together in order to come to a decision about how to be more sustainable
- The Earth summit was created in response to the summit to help countries internationally cooperate in development and it had an impact on many areas
- It created more organizations and charities
and It’s started local action and recycling and the bigger picture in the region and it started in 1992 and aims to carry on until another 20 years approximately
81
What is global commons and common heritage?
- It includes resource areas where resources are outside of national reach or political claim and it is where there are mostly shared resources
- The principle of common heritage is followed by international law and it states that some local resources should be to only certain people however global resources need to be shared
- The tragedy of the global commons means that for resources, supply and demand to be sustained only some local resources can be taken at times and people also need to benefit themselves which has an effect on the local and global common heritage
82
What are fisheries?
- Fishing is one of the only large scale resources going on in Antarctica, and the impacts include over-fishing on certain species, killing other species accidentally, destruction of habitats with certain equipment and gear
- Certain fish are in high demands, which impacts the economy of countries and the fishing industry, and the key concern is with Antarctic krill, which are a key species within the Southern Ocean
- These feed directly on Plankton, and grow a length of 6cm and they live in large schools, reaching densities of 10,000 – 30,000 per cubic meter, but Krill populations have dropped significantly from the start of the industry in the 1970s and their decline may account for the decline in some penguin species
83
What threats are there from whaling?
- Antarctic whaling began on a large scale in 1904 when there was a whale processing station built in South Georgia, and today whaling has been banned through the International Whaling Commission
- However in December 2007 it took international pressure for Japan to cancel their plans for a scientific catch of 50 humpback whales, but they continued with their plans to take up to 935 minke whales, and 50 endangered fin whales, despite close monitoring by interested governments and environmental NGOs
- Many species have been wiped out since it first began in the 18th Century and within 3 years, over 300,000 species of seal had been killed and it is widely controversial for its cruelty and danger to the environment
84
How are fisheries managed?
- The Convention of the Conservatives of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) controls commercial fisheries and they manage all fishing in the region
- In November 2007 a significant increase in the annual total allowable catch from 450,000 tonnes to 2.64 million tonnes, was agreed for the CCAMLR, and this was considered more sustainable following a scientific survey reporting a krill biomass of 28.75 million tonnes
- A range of additional conservation and protection measures have balanced the increases , and all vessels fishing the CCAMLR area must participate in their vessel monitoring system and those operating in Eastern Antarctica must have observers aboard
