Global Resource Consumption and Security Flashcards
About how much money does the middle class earn per day?
between $10-$100
What factors are increased with the middle class?
Increased disposable income
Increase in consumption per person
What are the causes of the ‘swelling middle’?
Increased population
Increased manufacturing and economic prosperity
Globalisation
Improved health care
What are the problems with the growing middle class?
- There is a higher demand for goods and services meaning more travel, electricity, food, water.
- Encourages scarcity and all means a larger carbon footprint.
What is an ecological footprint?
The theoretical measurement of the amount of land and water a population requires to produce the resources it consumes and to absorb its waste under prevailing technology.
What is ecological footprint measured in?
global hectares
When are countries living unsustainably?
When they are living with a larger footprint than their land.
How do countries increase their ecological footprint?
Relying heavily on fossil fuels
High levels of imported resources
Having a meat rich diet
Having a large per capita food consumption
How do countries reduce Ecological Footprint?
- Reducing amount of resources they use
- Recycling/Re-using resources
- Improving technology to increase carrying capacity e.g. GM crops to increase yield on same amount of land.
What is happening to water consumption and therefore availability?
water consumption is increasing therefore the availability is decreasing.
How does Pollution and Eutrophication contribute to water availability decreasing?
Pollution and Eutrophication: Intensive farming requires a lot of fertilizers, leading to runoff into water bodies leading to eutrophication. Concentrated pastoral farming often uses many antibiotics and animal waste also runs off into water systems leading to polluted water and increased eutrophication.
How does embedded water contribute to water availability decreasing?
Embedded water: A measure of the amount of water used in the production and transport to market food and commodities (also known as virtual water/water footprint). It may include the use of local water resources and the use of water resources in distant places. It takes 1300 L of water to produce 1kg of wheat and 1500 L to produce 1kg of beef.
How does increased consumption contribute to water availability decreasing?
Due to the growth of the middle class, increased population, increased industry, embedded water, household uses etc.:
- population has tripled since 1914 and water consumption has increased sixfold. (food, baths/showers, toilets, dishwashers etc.)
- demand is predicted to exceed the global supply by 40% by 2030.
- meat consumption is expected to double by 2050. Hence water consumption is expected to increase accordingly.
How does climate change contribute to water availability decreasing?
2/3 of our freshwater is stored in ice caps and glaciers, as these melt, the proportion of freshwater that we have decreases. Also changing weather patterns can mean that there is increased drought in some areas, hence limiting water availability and saltwater intrusion can be a cause of climate change or caused by groundwater extraction.
How does wasted water contribute to water availability decreasing?
In many areas especially where water scarcity is a problem, water is wasted by consumers, by industry, by agriculture, by poor infrastructure.
Up to 36% of all water that goes into water pipes in Boston is wasted, due to the poor infrastructure.
What are some examples of renewable energy types?
- Nuclear power plants
- Wind Turbines
- Solar Panels
- Hydroelectric power plants
- Biomass energy
How is nuclear energy produced?
Nuclear energy originates from the splitting of uranium atoms through a process called fission. This generates heat to produce steam, which is used by a turbine generator to generate electricity.
It is considered a renewable energy source as it does not rely on the burning of fossil fuels.
What are the cons of nuclear energy?
There is a risk of having a nuclear meltdown. For example, Chernobyl in 1986 and Fukushima in 2011. Despite all the safety measures in place, these nuclear plants undergo meltdown which is devastating for the environment. The local inhabitants may also have to flee the area. The death toll for Chernobyl was 54 people, and the estimated projected death is 4000 in the longer time.
The potential of nuclear power may not be worth the risk of powerful radiation leaks, mass evacuations and billions spent in repair.
Nuclear power plants are very expensive to build. It takes about $6 billion to build a nuclear power plant, and not only this but the maintenance costs are substantial and can potentially even exceed the initial production costs required in the early stages to simply implement the nuclear power plant.
There is a risk of a terrorist attacking the nuclear power plant due to the fissile plutonium component of the waste which can be re-used as bomb fuel.
Evaluate the future use of nuclear energy.
Nuclear power can be deemed as a non-renewable energy resource and therefore unsustainable because there is a limited supply of uranium 235. But, nuclear energy is a zero emission energy resource. It does not pollute the air, unlike several non-renewable resources. Furthermore, nuclear power stations use a small footprint in comparison to solar and wind farms.
What are the suitable/non suitable places where nuclear power plants can be built?
- Geographically, nuclear power plants should be built away from large urban areas, and near places where there is a large amount of water available for cooling because a lot of heat is created as the generator turns and because of the nuclear fission that is the main principle behind the generation of electricity, and this needs to be expelled via its condenser system. This should also be built away from animal habitat locations because it can disrupt the ecological balance of the region.
- The topography of the location has to be taken into account, it has to be built on flat ground.
What are the suitable/non suitable places where wind energy can be produced?
- coastal areas, top of rounded hills and gaps in mountains - places where wind is strong and reliable
- non suitable areas include deserts where there’s not much wind.
How do wind turbines work?
There is a generator in the wind turbine which turns via the blades turning the Coggs. The energy is produced entirely from the wind however the manufacturing for the generators, wind turbines etc are from fossil fuels and one may suggest that because of this it is less sustainable.
What are the advantages of wind turbines?
- Its renewable and sustainable. Winds are caused by heating of the atmosphere by the sun, earth surface irregularities and the rotation of the earth. The energy produced can be harnessed and it will never run out unlike the Earth’s fossil fuel reserves.
- It is cost effective as the wind is readily available and free. The technology is also becoming cheaper.
Job creation. Jobs have been created for the manufacture of wind turbines, the installation and maintenance of wind turbines and also in wind energy consulting.
What are the drawbacks of wind turbines?
- Fluctuation of wind and good wind sites. Wind energy is not a constant energy source. Although it may never run out, the wind isn’t always blowing. For a wind turbine to be efficient, the location where it is built needs to have an adequate supply of wind energy.
- Noise and aesthetic pollution. Wind turbines generate noise and visual pollution. A single wind turbine can be heard from hundreds of meters away.
- Threat to wildlife. Birds have been killed by flying into spinning turbine blades. However, this problem has become less of a threat due to technological development or by properly siting wind plants.
Evaluate the future mass use of wind turbines/energy.
Depends upon how much the governments of countries spend on developing and implementing wind turbines. If countries don’t spend enough on build and implementing the turbines then there will not be enough wind energy created suggesting that it is not a suitable alternative to oil as countries require a lot of energy in order to sustain the increase in the global populations level of demand.
It depends on how accessible it can be and on if the countries are able to access the right locations. Wind farms demand a lot of space, maintenance and have a high initial cost it will be hard to initially invest as the infrastructure will also need time and money to develop.
However, It is very do-able and can significantly help countries trying to improve their carbon footprint or looking for another way to generate sustainable energy.
How do solar panels work?
Solar energy is produced when sunlight strikes solar panels, which then turn solar power into usable electricity.
Step1: Sunlight activates thepanels.
Step2: The cellsproduceelectrical current.
Step3: The electricalenergyis converted.
Step4: The converted electricity powers your home.
Step5: A net meter measures usage.
What are the disadvantages of solar panels?
Cost. The initial cost of purchasing asolarsystem is fairly high.
Weather Dependent. Althoughsolar energycan still be collected during cloudy and rainy days, the efficiency of thesolarsystem drops considerably
Uses a Lot of Space.
For a system that does not track the sun, the highest theoretical maximum efficiency is only 55%. The same is true for systems that track the sun on cloudy days.
Evaluate the future mass use of solar panels.
- Has to be used right away so it can only be used in areas with a lot of light
Can be used for appliances requiring direct current - Not suitable for LIC’S
- Depending on where you live it will be useful as if you are in a country with a high latitude then there will be no reason to use solar panels due to the high costs and the very low efficacy and the limited amount of sunlight.
- Even if full efficiency is achieved in a country with high amounts of sunlight, they only work at 80% efficiency during the day.
How is hydroelectric power generated?
Flowing water creates energy that can be captured and turned into electricity. This is called hydroelectric power. The most common type of hydroelectric plant uses a dam on a river to store water in a reservoir. Water released from the reservoir flows through a turbine, spinning it, which in turn activates a generator to produce electricity.
What are the disadvantages of hydroelectric power?
- Vast areas may be flooded, involving loss of habitats, farmland and displacement of people.
- The cost of building dams is high, and dams may eventually silt up, rendering them unusable
Evaluate the future mass use of hydroelectric power.
Despite the fact that hydroelectric power is renewable, there are still several restrictions that currently limit large-scale use of renewable energy sources. Fossil fuels are still economically cheaper to exploit, and the technologies to harness renewable resources aren’t available on a large-scale. The locations for renewable energy sources are often limited by politics. All these factors mean that renewable resources are not able to meet current demand.
What is the water-food-energy nexus?
The complex interactions between food, energy and water. They all rely on each other and if one fails the others will follow.
What is the link between water and food?
- water scarcity affects crop yields - particularly rain-fed agriculture (e.g. in Sub Saharan Africa/LICs)
- water is necessary for food processing and production
- unregulated/unsustainable water use in agriculture exacerbates water security
What is the link between water and energy?
- water generates hydroelectricity and is used for cooling in power plants
- water is used to extract and produce energy resources (particularly fossil fuels)
- the extraction of gas and oil can contaminate groundwater/aquifers
- fossil fuels contribute to climate change which has knock on impacts on the hydrological cycle.
What is the link between energy and food?
- food prices rise as fuel costs rise, particularly for vulnerable nations who are reliant on imports as a food source
- increasing meat consumption and the nutrition transition raises greenhouse gas emissions and energy production, exacerbating climate change.
What is water security?
Access to sufficient, sustainable quantities of clean water and sanitation.
What are the causes of water insecurity?
- the gap between supply and demand. usually in an area where the natural supply is inadequate to meet the needs of a growing population. such shortages can be physical or economic in origin. gap not only linked to population but also linked to greater affluence and changing lifestyles e.g. water usage for pools, washing machines.
- Climate change: causing a shift in water availability and areas that previously had sufficient water now face droughts. Droughts are becoming more frequent and prolonged, thus causing water insecurity.
- Poverty: In areas of the world where there is a poor natural supply (physical scarcity) and poor infrastructure (economic scarcity) poverty deprives many people of water security. Water is too expensive to buy so they have limited access to clean, safe water.
What are some facts about water security?
- 30% of the world’s population does not have access to improved sanitation.
- over 3 million children die each year of water-related diseases due to lack of access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation; that is, 5.7 children dying every minute from preventable cause.
How can we improve water security?
Increase the supply: desalination, water-transfer schemes, grey-water recycling and fog harvesting.
Increase the storage: reservoirs, artificial recharge of aquifers, rainfall-harvesting schemes and artificial glaciers.
Decrease the demand: water conservation, raising awareness.
What does having a high water stress score mean?
the natural availability of water is limited but does not mean the country does not have water security.
What is food security?
When all people at all times have physical, social and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food which meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life.
How many people are affected by food insecurity on the planet?
Every 9th person on the planet.
What are the causes of food insecurity?
- Lack of education and access to modern farming techniques e.g. fertiliser, irrigation and high yield crops.
- Global climate change impacts food production directly: some new areas will be opened up for crop production while other areas will be lost. As climate patterns shift farmers have to deal with changes in rainfall patterns, temperature ranges and seasonal shifts. This will impact the range for some major crops.
- Global climate change impacts food production indirectly through the increase in incidence and severity of extreme weather events such as droughts, floods, cyclones and associated storm surges.
- Markets are dominated by multinational agribusiness and the small-scale farmers have limited access to markets for their produce.
- Land grabbing is a common practice in many LICs. Traditionally owned family farms are taken over by large business investors. The land is generally acquired to grow food for export, which deprives the families and the local community of the land needed to survive, which causes poverty and social instability.
How has the Green Revolution improved food insecurity?
- The Green Revolution was credited with saving over a billion people from starvation in the 1960s.
- The Green Revolution was a research and development initiative with the aim of increasing global agricultural production, particularly in LICs. The research and development led to increased use of technologies that were already known and in use in HICs, such as:
high-yield varieties (HYVs) of cereals and other hybridised seeds, such as dwarf wheat, maize and rice. The Green Revolution used selective breeding, not genetic modification, to achieve the desirable characteristics of the crops. The crops are generally shorter (to avoid lodging or blowing over in the wind) and produce more grain. - improved water supply through better irrigation techniques;
mechanisation in all areas of production, ploughing, application of chemicals and harvesting.
How can solar irrigation improve food insecurity?
Solar irrigation are mobile photovoltaic cells that are connected to a pump which draws water from wells and rivers.
Solar irrigation addresses all aspects of the water–energy–food (WEF) nexus. It is a reliable, low-cost, clean energy solution that allows effective agricultural water management in water-scarce areas that get a lot of sunshine. A major advantage is that the pumps powered by solar energy can provide energy for other uses in remote rural areas.
The concern is that it the pumps make water available all year, meaning that farmers could overuse and deplete groundwater.
What can be done to improve food security when impacted by climate change?
Diversification of crops. Growing a range of crops means that in the event of low rainfall some may survive.
What human factor can be put in place to improve food security?
As with food wastage, the issue of changing diet and increased calorie consumption is down to education and awareness campaigns. Many people are unaware of the number of calories they need to stay healthy (as witnessed by the obesity epidemic in many countries) or of the impact of increased meat consumption. Both these issues have negative impacts on food security and on the environment.
What is energy security?
this is access to clean, sustainable, reliable, affordable, modern energy to meet the needs of all sectors such as domestic, municipal, commerce, industry.
What percentage of the population lacks access to modern energy supplies?
some 20% of global population
What are the threats to energy security?
- Fossil fuel depletion: they are finite and eventually will run out.
- Reliance on imports: Many of LICs are now using energy sources (oil) for their own development and this means they no longer have a surplus to export (e.g. Venezuela).
Oil, in particular, is located in some politically less stable parts of the world (e.g. Middle Eastern and some African countries). Places such as Nigeria, Iran and Iraq experience political instability and that can threaten supply.
Terrorist attacks on oil fields or the supply infrastructure are always a risk. - Rapid development in developing countries such as China and India significantly increases their demand for energy which is projected to deplete the non-renewables.
- natural disasters can disrupt energy supplies. e.g. the accident at the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power station in 2011 caused serious energy insecurity for Japan.
Why are the G7 countries considered to be high energy security risk?
because of the high imports of fossil fuels and electricity needed to support its colossal demand for energy. The largest percentage of US oil imports come from Middle Eastern countries – leaving the country at continual high risk of supply interruption and price shocks. In 2008, the US imported an average of 12.9 million barrels of oil per day, which represents 15.10% of world production in that year, with 23.36% coming from the MENA region.
How does Iceland have good energy security?
Iceland: Geothermal energy.
- the steam from the boiling hot underground reservoirs is captured.
- then flows through pipes to the plant to where it turns turbines to create electricity..
- the same steam then flows through pipes that heat 95% of iceland’s buildings and water.
How is the USA improving their energy security?
The USA has been using fracking since 1949 but it is only recently that it has become more common; now, some 95% of all new wells use fracking. This is largely due to the fact that traditional methods of extracting oil and natural gas are no longer effective for many of the remaining deposits.
Whereas fracking is one way in which the USA can improve its energy security there are a number of environmental and health concerns surrounding the practice. In 2017 the US state of Maryland banned fracking, which effectively cut off known natural gas supplies from exploitation.
Where do waste flows typically flow from and to? Why?
From HICs to LICs. When HICs export their waste they do not want to deal with them because waste management and recycling is extremely polluting and a source of health hazards.
- So they exploit it to LICs for cheap labour to deal with the waste.
- For instance the UK’s recycling system cannot cope with the massive amounts of plastic waste that they generate.
- “one man’s trash is another man’s treasure” meaning LICs use the waste imported as a way of making money through scavenging for valuable metals that can be sold.
Outline the main aims of the Basel Convention.
- A UN passed resolution meant to control the transboundary movement of waste.
- To establish a regulatory system that will apply in cases where transboundary movements are permissible.
- To minimize the amount and toxicity of hazardous wastes generated
Outline the ways in which e-waste is recycled in Ghana.
- Some of it is sold
- The rest is burned. Releases a lot of greenhouse gases, enhances global warming.
- The rubber and plastic is burned in order to scrap the raw metals inside.
- Workers manually disassemble parts and burn off the plastic encasements on computer wires and refrigerator coils to recover profitable metals.
What happens to the e-waste in Agbogbloshie when it can no longer be recycled?
- It is burned and releases toxic fumes into the atmosphere.
- People inhale these toxic fumes which is detrimental to their health.
- The average life expectancy is just 25 years.
What are the recommendations of ‘Fair Trade Recycling?’
- They seek to offer truthful solutions for the e waste problems
- They pledge to reform the export market, treat importers fairly, eliminate “toxics along for the ride”
- They research markets and try new solutions
They refuse to racially profile, impugn or exaggerate recycling challenges
Outline the socio-economic impacts of the disposal of e-waste in Agbogbloshie.
Inhaling the toxic fumes can cause cancer, kidney failure and bone disease. High levels of lead attacks the nervous system.
There is illegal imports of e-waste into Ghana. Most of the electronic items actually do work so are not considered e-waste which is what makes this illegal e-waste trafficking.
People dig through this e-waste in search for copper and other valuable parts and metals to sell and make money from. They earn between 5 and 7 euros.
Creates jobs
Outline the environmental impacts of the disposal of e-waste in Agbogbloshie.
Increased CO2 emissions due to burning of the e waste, enhances global warming
The soil is contaminated
Effects the food chain, toxins can be found in chicken eggs.
What is Malthusian’s pessimistic view on resource consumption?
This type of thinking argues that human population can never increase past the food supply needed to maintain the population
What is the neo-malthusian belief?
the belief that human population increases exponentially while food production is linear.
What are malthusian’s preventative checks?
These are measures taken by humans to reduce shortages. This might be reducing population through better family planning and possibly anti-natalist policies.
What are malthusian’s positive checks?
Despite their name, they are actually more negative solutions to resource shortages. These might be fighting and war or massive famines which actually reduce the overall population and therefore demand.
What is the Club of Rome and their beliefs?
An organisation of experts from various fields promoting understanding of the global challenges facing humanity and to propose solutions through scientific analysis, communication and advocacy. Their final predictions were pessimistic. → This is important because it’s a group of scientists, economists and other experts, that didn’t set out to be pessimistic, but based on their findings, determined that pessimistic was the way to be.
What are the criticisms of the Malthusian Theory?
- Based on a closed community that does not take into account other factors influencing population growth, including the level of development of individual countries.
- He does not consider/predict the industrial revolution that increased food production.
- Even population distribution is very difficult to maintain and thus this model is an unrealistic reflection of real life.
What is Boserup’s optimistic view on resource consumption?
- the belief that humans have sufficient resources, technology and ingenuity to increase food supplies.
- if there is enough need and desperation for a certain thing, humans will find a way to address that need through ingenuity - that humans will always find solutions to shortages.
- She considered that any increase in the intensity of productivity by the adoption of new techniques would be unlikely unless population increased. Thus, population growth will lead to agricultural development and the growth of food supply.
What are the criticisms of the Boserup theory?
- Doesn’t consider environmental implications: Doesn’t consider environmental implications - more biological productivity must be diverted to increase production regardless of how advanced technology is, which comes with long term environmental pressure that may not be sustainable.
- Promotes a complacent mentality
What is resource stewardship?
- is an ethic that embodies the responsible planning and management of resources. Suggests that corporations should take responsibility for their own waste.
- concept that suggests that humans can use resources in such a way that they will be available to future generations. It suggests that there will not only be environmental sustainability but also social equity over access to resources.
What is meant by the term ‘the tragedy of the commons’? What does this mean in terms of resource stewardship?
Explains the lack of control over the way common resources are used and how the selfish acts of a few individuals can destroy the resource for others.
What is Maximum sustainable yield?
if the rate of use is within the limit of natural replacement and regeneration.
What is sustainable development?
human societies must live and meet their needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
What is remanufacturing?
the rebuilding of a product to specifications of the original manufactured product using a combination of reused, repaired and new parts.
What is a linear economy?
- (take - make - use - dispose)
- Extracting material from the ground, turning it into a product and ultimately throwing it away. We do attempt to recycle some of it but with the aim to retrieve the product that comes out of it at the end.
What is a circular economy?
Returning old products and renewing them/turning them into new products or regenerating them.
Why is the circular economy approach more than just increased recycling or improved efficiency in using primary resources and fossil fuels?
Because it’s a way to cycle valuable materials such as metals, so that they maintain that quality and continue to be useful beyond their shelf life. Goods of today becoming the resources of tomorrow.
What are the key differences between the linear and circular economies?
A linear economy focuses on throwing goods away and replacing them whereas a circular economy focuses on designing products that can be utilised again in the future.
Apply Mobile phones to your knowledge of the Circular economy.
Companies such as Apple and Samsung are designing mobile phones to be more long lasting which increases the time taken for a consumer to discard the product or replace it with a new one, ultimately driving it away from a linear economy. They are coming up with actions that help consumers repair a part of a mobile phone if something goes wrong instead of throwing the whole phone away, therefore, encourages a more circular economy.
What is the key strategy used by companies who make electronics?
“Designed for the dump” - making stuff to be thrown away quickly.
How can companies deal with their e-waste?
“Product take back” - this would be cheaper for them to design them to be longer lasting, less toxic and more recyclable. They could even make them modular (easy to pick the parts apart) so that when one part needs repairing the whole product does not need to be replaced.
How many SDGs are there?
17
What are the key goals for nexus and consumption?
2) Zero Hunger
6) Clean water and Sanitation
7) Affordable and clean energy
12) Responsible Consumption and Production
13) Climate Action
Goal 2: Zero Hunger
End hunger and ensure access to nutritious, affordable food all year round, particularly by the elderly and the young.
Why is it important?
Considered essential for eradicating poverty. Improvements in food will improve whole nations due to the heavy reliance on agriculture as a livelihood in most parts of the world. Increasing crop diversity ensures minimal food wastage from wasted crops
Goal 6: Clean Water & Sanitation
To achieve universal and equitable access to safe, affordable drinking water, as well as hygiene, with focus on the needs of women.
Improve water quality by reducing the dumping of pollutants and reusing waste water
Why is it important?
Hydropower is a crucial (and most widely used) part of renewable energy; establishing reliable sources of water will solve issues of sanitation that hold back a country’s economic productivity
70% of water is used for irrigation, so improving water will also improve food security. This goal has the potential to resolve almost all economic water scarcity.
Goal 13: Climate Change
Integration of climate change prevention strategies into all aspects of policy making
Improve education and awareness on the mitigation of climate change, early warning and impact reduction
Promote ways to increase climate change planning and management in less developed countries
Why is this important?
The GHG emissions contributing to global warming need to be reduced by making improvements to the areas of water management as well as food and energy production.
