Global Governance- Environmental Flashcards
1
Q
describe environmental challenges
A
- seen as a collective action problem
= every state contributes to cause go challenges and every state is affected by challenges - states need a framework where they can agree there’s a problem and how to fix it
2
Q
describe global commons and examples
A
- global resources and environment that’s shared among nation-states as no gov or sov state owns them
= e.g. ocean, outer space and atmosphere - 12 tonnes of plastic reach ocean per year
- russia relies on Artic for 20% supplies
- 2013, US NASA said there was 6,000 tonnes of human generated space debris orbiting the earth
3
Q
describe tragedy of commons
A
- refers to a situation where individuals, acting according to their own self-interest, overuse and deplete a shared resource, even though it is in everyone’s long-term interest to conserve that resource
= term was first coined by the ecologist Garrett Hardin in 1968 - counters may priories short term gains over long term environmental stability
= Russia and Saudi Arabia are fossil-fuel dependent and have resisted international efforts to reduce CO2 emissions due to economic benefits of oil and gas exports
4
Q
describe issue of global climate change
A
- refers to long-term changes in the average weather patterns over extended periods- decades, centuries, or even longer- that affect the Earth’s climate system
- china and India account for 1 mil deaths a year as an immediate result of air pollution
5
Q
describe deep ecology
A
- need population control in order to create sustainable environment= if LIC cant afford food etc, population must naturally fix itself to decrease surplus= need rapid and immediate change= environment is more important than human life
- current economic and industrial systems inherently unsustainable= calls to reconstruct society’s relationship with nature
- promote policies and lifestyle changes that minimise impact on the planet like less consumption, use of fossil fuels etc and moves towards self-sufficient communities
- shown in degrowth movement which advocates for downsizing economies to reduce environmental impact of human consumption
6
Q
impact of non-state actors
A
- David Attenborough 2020 documentary ‘A life of our Planet’ highlighted climate change and vulnerability of various species like polar bear
= reach global audience through Netflix accessibility watched by millions
= LIGHT GREEN - Greta Thunberg protested against expansion of Farnborough airport due to private flights increasing from 50,000 to 70,000/ year in Jane 2024
= high popularity 2018 due to school strikes where over 1 mil students participated in more than 100 diff countries
BUT
less influence due to high political involvement= expanding views to anti-capitalism, refugee rights= less support
7
Q
role of NGOs
A
- Extinction Rebellion= 2019, blocked commuter trains to London and Feb 2025, blocked Farnborough airport
= 2021 yougov poll showed only 19% uk ppl had positive view of XR as 54% opposed their protests due to disruption= DARK GREEN - Greenpeace= 3.5 individual supporters and operate in 55 countries, 93% fame rating on yougov= work within UN system= Greenpeace worked to support UN efforts aimed @ protecting oceans through 2017 UN Ocean Conference= LIGHT GREEN
- Just Stop Oil= shut down M25, Dartford crossing 2022 and disrupted les miserables perforce in London 2023
= yougov poll 2023 showed 43% people voted JTO were “very unfavourable”
= DARK GREEN due to civil disobedience and public nuisance e.g. glued themselves to roads - World Wildlife Fund= raised over £300 mil for WWF= help restore natural world and protect vital habitats= 5 mil supporters in over 100 countries= promoted through celeb endorsement e.g. price William
= campaigns against whaling in artic= LIGHT GREEN= work w gov, lobby etc
8
Q
describe shallow ecology
A
- need pragmatic change= human interests and needs override moral and political importance
- need ‘green capitalism’= make consumers aware of environmental costs
= force firms and demands to change behaviour
= must manage scarce resources with sustainable development - environmental protection can co-exist w economic growth and development
- promotes practical and market based solutions like emissions trading schemes, pollution control and investment in cleaner tech
- 2015 Paris agreement allows countries to set own emission reduction targets and encourages investment in green tech and renewable energy as a path to economic growth
- developed nations and MNCs embrace this POV as they see climate action compatible w economic objectives
= European unions emissions trading system= caps overall emissions while allowing firms to buy and sell emissions allowances to leverage market mechanisms that will incentivise reduction in emissions
9
Q
describe sustainable development
A
- approach to environmental management that aims to reconcile economic growth with environmental protection= they can coexist
= concept popularised by 1987 Brundtland Report= economic prosperity and protecting environment can reinforce each other - sustainable development approach has shaped international efforts to address climate change
= UN SDGs= SDG 13 focuses specially on climate action, aiming to integrate climate measures into national policies and strengthen resilience to climate-related hazards - argues that by investing in green tech, renewable energy and sustainable agriculture, nations can achieve economic growth while reducing environmental footprint
= rise in renewable energy resources like wind and solar accounted for 29% global electricity generation in 2020
= create economic and environmental benefits
= Denmark and Costa Rica show that national policies centred on sustainability can lead to substantial progress
= Costa Rica generales over 98% of its electricity from renewable sources and used it’s success to promote eco-tourism which enhances it’s economy while preserving it’s natural resources
10
Q
disadv of sustainable development
A
- doesn’t fully address scale of change required to tackle climate crisis as it assumes economic growth can continue wo harming environment
= deep green ecologists argue current sustainable development is too dependent on resource extraction and consumerism
= argue the only way to help is to reduce consumption and reconstruct economic system - current sustainable projects have failed to be effective
= global temp expected to rise to 2.7C by end of century
11
Q
disadv of action taken to reduce climate change
A
- sov within international system means agreements rely on voluntary commitment by states rather than legally binding commitments
= Paris agreement allows states to determine won NDCs and has no enforceable penalties for states that fall short of target
= means states may delay or backtrack goals based on domestic priorities or economic pressures
= US signed 1997 Kyoto but refused to ratify it as senate said it unfairly exempted developing countries from emissions reduction and could harm US economy - US withdrew from Paris agreement twice
- disagreements over who should accept responsibility to tackle climate change
= developing states argue that developed nations have produced most damage as US is world’s biggest emitter per capita especially during Industrial Revolution= 1850-2019, US and EU accounted for 50% global cumulative CO2 emissions while Africa contributed to less than 4% and south east Asia only 3% - developed countries failed to meet green climate fund of $100 billion to developing countries= only did $83.3 billion in 2020
- developing states believe they have right to advance economically= don’t think they should compromise economic growth which can lift people out of poverty and meeting basic human needs
= in sub saharan Africa over 600 mil people still lack reliable electricity
= India GDP/capita is $2000 vs US is $65,000 - developed nations argue for balanced approach but also believe developing countries are responsible for recent rises in emissions= china accounts for 30% global CO2 emissions and EU only 8%
12
Q
climate change agreements etc
A
- Copenhagen accord 2009 didn’t establish any binding commitments but developed and developing set voluntary emission targets
= developed states argued growing economies like china and India should commit to climate action to prevent further rises in emissions otherwise it undermines global progress
BUT criticised for lacking enforcement mechanisms and clear accountability measures - 2015 Paris climate agreement was milestone in climate change cooperation
= established universal framework that required states to set NDCs which are flexible based on national circumstances
= India’s NDC allows it to increase emissions until it reaches its peak by 2030
= balances development needs w climate commitments
= developed countries pledged to mobilise $100 bil to developing states annually but target wasn’t met till 2022= increased tensions
13
Q
adv IPCC
A
- raises global awareness through reports from educated policymakers
= informs public about scientific realities and potential consequences of climate change
= wanted that rises above 1.5C could lead to irreversible environmental and social damage= must focus on mitigation - reports are central to development of major climate change agreements like Paris and Kyoto
= 2007 Fourth Assessment Report highlighted scientific basis for immediate action= set stage for Paris target to limit global warming “well below” 2C, ideally 1.5C - countries frequently rely on IPCC findings to inform climate policies e.g. UK climate act of 2008 which sets legally binding targets for emissions reductions
= influenced IPCC findings on link between global warming and CO2 emissions - helped to shift global public opinion on climate change= arguing for stronger action
= campaigns like student led Greta Thunberg action has drawn on IPCC findings to underscore immediacy of climate threat to rally public support
14
Q
disadv IPCC
A
- lacks enforcement powers= makes it dependent on voluntary action by Govs to implement its suggestions
- consensus driven process means reports can be conservative and slow to reflect current scientific findings
= IPCC’s 5th Report 2014 was criticised for underestimating potential sea-level rise
= later updated by the Special Report on Oceans and Cryospehere 2019 which showed significantly more severe scenarios
15
Q
recent IPCC impacts
A
2018 special report on global warming of 1.5C
- highlighted critical diff between 1.5C and 2C rise in global temps= warned that even a half degree increase would substantially increase risks of extreme weather, sea level rises etc
= if its 1.5C it could halve amount of ppl exposed to water scarcity, reduce risks to biodiversity and decrease risk of ice-free arctic during summer
- report advocated for “rapid” changes to halve global emissions by 2030 and achieve net0 by 2050
2021/2022 Sixth Assessment Report (AR6)
- provided most detailed and comprehensive analysis of climate science to date= stressed climate crisis is worsening faster than previously thought
= called for a reduction of at least 43% emissions by 2030 to limit warming to 1.5C
- wealthier nations have responsibility to support developing countries in mitigation and adaption efforts
16
Q
describe UNFCCC and it’s role
A
- established in 1992 in Rio Earth Summit= first global framework to address climate change and recognising its a shared problem that required coordinated action
- 198 parties= near-universal membership which demonstrates broad commitment to climate change
- serves as primary international forum for climate action= set framework for how countries address c change though regular conferences known as COPs
= where states assess progress, negotiate biding and non-binding agreements and establish tech and financial assistance for LICs - doesn’t mandate emission reduction targets instead encourages countries to create their own goals and report their emissions= provide flexible structure that allows broad participation
17
Q
adv of UNFCCC
A
- regular COP meetings= been able to institutionalise climate discussions
= ensuring climate change remains top priority on international agenda
= allows states to come together to negotiate agreements and assess collective progress - facilitate signing of key international agreements designed to tackle climate change= Kyoto and Paris agreement
- created mechanisms like the Green Climate Fund in 2010= support developing countries in mitigating and adapting to climate change
= aimed to provide $100 billion a year by 2020 from developed to developing countries - established systems for countries to report their emissions and climate actions= increase transparency
- regular reports hold states accountable and enables global community to monitor progress
= Japan heavily criticised after decreasing emission targets in wake of Fukushima nuclear disaster 2011 as it increased reliance on fossil fuels
= shift led to calls from UN and environmental groups for Japan to revisit its climate strategy
18
Q
disadv of UNFCCC
A
- lacks power to enforce emissions reductions, instead relying on voluntary commitments= led to uneven compliance= US withdrawing and China’s coal use surged during energy crises 2021–2022 as over 100 new coal power plants were approved in 2022 alone
- its approach to climate responsibility has been challenged by divisions between developing and developed countries
= COP26 2021, U.S. climate envoy John Kerry pushed China to accelerate coal phase-out and stronger NDCs
vs
China’s criticised the West’s “historical hypocrisy” and failure to deliver finance - GCF has failed to meet targets of $100 billion a year to developing states
= in 2019, OECD reported only $79.6 billion was mobilised= leaving a $20 billion gap= hindered states ability to implement necessary adaption and mitigation projects
19
Q
describe international agreements to tackle C change
A
- agreements aim to set binding or aspirational targets for emissions reductions, promote sustainable development and foster international cooperation to reflect evolving approaches to climate governance
20
Q
describe 1992 rio earth summit
A
- bought together 178 countries to address environmental challenges
- Agenda 21 was non-binding action plan to promote sustainable development globally over poverty reduction, waste management and conservation
- led to creation of UNFCCC and CBD which coordinate global responses to climate and biodiversity challenges
- principle of “common but differentiated responsibilities”
= reconsider developed countries historically responsible for majority of greenhouse gas emissions= developed states should lead addressing C change and support developing state’s efforts - lacked binding obligations= made adoption among countries inconsistent
- been a source of division over extent of developed state’s financial and technical responsibilities
- laid essential groundwork but highlighted need for more concrete and enforceable commitments
21
Q
describe kyoto protocol 1997
A
- first time countries agreed to binding greenhouse gas commitment target
- required 37 industrialised countries like Japan, EU and Canada to reduce GHG emissions to 5% below 1990 levels during first commitment period 2008-2012
- came into force in 2005 after ratified by numerous states
- established carbon trading and clean development mechanisms which allow countries to earn credits by investing in emissions-reduction projects in developing countries= more flexibility to meet commitments
- protocol was meant to end in 2012 so it was extended in 2012 under the Doha Amendment
= led to lower engagement as US didn’t ratify it and Russia, Japan, New Zealand declined to take on new targets
22
Q
international agreements are effective
A
- facilitated global commitment to tackle C change= 2015 Paris agreement brought together 194 countries like major emitters of US, EU and China
= pledged to reduce warming to 1.5C
= nations able to establish shared goal to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in ways that suit their economic and environmental contexts= reinforce CBDR
= 2021 COP26 saw 190 states agree to “phase down” coal - influences national policies and held countries accountable by embedding global goals global goals into national legislative frameworks
= Paris agreement required countries to submit and update nationally determined contributions (NDCs) every 5 years= push them to develop and refine ambitious climate strategies
= 2023 Global Stockstate= countries were held accountable for progress towards their NDCs= encourage corrective measures
= UK Climate Change Act 2008 made net0 target by 2050 legally binding requirement for carbon budgeting= influenced by Kyoto protocol= inspired similar legislation in Sweden and new Zealand - addressed need for developed states to help developing states by placing strong emphasis on historical responsibility of developed nations
= Paris agreement reaffirmed commitment to mobilise $100 billion to developing states under GCF which has helped projects in Africa, Asia and latin America= met in 2022, when they gave total of $115.9 bil in climate finance
= GCF funded $98 mil project in Morocco to build world’s biggest solar power plant= boosted country’s renewable energy capacity and reduced reliance on fossil fuels
23
Q
international agreements aren’t effective
A
- lacked enforcement mechanisms and haven’t been ambitious enough
= no binding consequences for non=compliance, allowing countries to miss their targets wo facing sanctions or penalties
= seen in Paris agreement as NDCs weren’t legally bound to meet and in Kyoto protocol, there was lack of engagement from major emitters like US who didn’t ratify it= weaken its impact - voluntary nature of agreements makes countries set insufficiently ambitious goals
= under brazil’s initial NDC it aimed to reduce emissions by 37% by 2025 but since weakened enforcement of environmental protections= led to more deforestation in amazon rainforest - many countries have failed to meet their targets despite signing agreements
= under Copenhagen Accord, Canada pledged to cut its greenhouse gas emissions by 17% below 2005 levels by 2020 but due to increased oil and gas production it’s emissions actually rose by 21% above 1990 levels
= caused Canada to withdraw from protocol in 2011 - substantial gaps in meeting targets and commitments
= china pledged to peak its emissions by 2030 and reach carbon neutrality by 2060 but continues to approve new coal fired power plants and increasing emissions due to industrial growth - developed states haven’t supported developing states as much as promised
= 2019 OECD reported only $79.6 billion was mobilised= inconsistencies have strained trust between developed and developing countries
= sub Saharan africa is highly vulnerable to climate impacts= struggled to fund necessary adaption measures like building resilient infrastructure and securing water resources due to limited financial support
= 2021 PM of Barbados called out limited contributions of developed states and argued climate finance must go beyond $100 billion pledge
24
Q
describe COP26 2021 glasgow
A
- Glasgow climate pact to “phase down” coal usage= reduce reliance on coal
- developed countries reiterated $100 billion climate finance pledge and double adaption finance for developing nations by 2025
- article 6 carbon markets= finalised rules on international CO2 markets by enabling states to trade emissions reductions wo overreaching unsustainable emissions
25
adv of conferences
- Glasgow climate pact marked first step forwards by formally including fossil fuels specifically coal
- COP26 saw record breaking presence of fossil fuel representatives
= over 500 lobbyists from coal, oil and gas companies registered for the conference
- COP26 finalised rules for climate markets under article 6 which had been unresolved since Paris agreement 2015
= incentive for countries to invest in green tech and emission reduction projects internationally
- COP28 results of global stocktake served as stark warning that the current commitments and actions are far from adequate to meet 1.5C
= clear benchmark for future climate action and increased pressures on countries to enhance their commitments
26
disadv of conferences
- Glasgow climate act weakened from "phased out" to "phase down" coal due major coal dependent countries like India and china= diluted it's impact
- COP26 fossil lobbyists weakened commitments made in terms of setting stronger language on fossil fuel reduction
- offset mechanisms of carbon markets might allow high emitting countries to avoid meaningful domestic reductions by purchasing cheaper carbon credits abroad
= undermined overall emissions reduction goals
- COP28 was marked by significant presence of fossil fuel industry representatives= led to concerns about influence of oil and gas companies on the negotiations
= county's host was UAE= major oil producer= criticisms that
27
describe COP28 dubai 2023
- stocktake assessed the collective progress of countries toward the agreement's goals
= findings indicated that current policies are insufficient to meet 1.5C target
- reaffirmed 1.5C target with renewed calls for major emitters to submit more ambitious NDCs by the next COP
- explored innovative climate finance solutions like blended finance initiatives and partnerships with private investors
= help meet adaption and mitigation needs in developing countries
28
describe COP29 Baku 2024
- UK announced new NDC to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by at least 81% by 2035 compared to 1990s levels
- first open letter that explicitly spoke about a phase down of fossil fuels not just coal= mark significant shift in global climate negotiations
- Adaption Fund received a boost in funding= increase from $100 billion to $300 billion annual commitment
- non-binding= didn't set a binding global deadline for fossil fuel phase out
29
important developments in international efforts to tackle climate change in last decade
- US 2017 withdrawal of Paris agreement= weakened global momentum
- Biden rejoined 2021 and introduced new policies e.g. Inflation Reduction Act which invested billions into clean energy and emissions reductions
= highlight the massive impact US has on climate
- "loss and damage" framework in COP negotiations reflects growing pressure from vulnerable nations for compensation of irreversible climate impacts
= "Loss and Damage" @ COP27 recognised role of developed nations in historical emissions= have duty to support countries suffering the most
= offers financial support to countries that are disproportionately affected by severe climate impacts
- countries like china, UK, US and India have increased renewable capacity
= china leading in solar and wind energy installation
= IRENA reported $500 billion in global renewable energy investments 20222 alone BUT its uneven as developing countries less access to afford tech
- increase in civil society= youth groups like greta Thunberg leading strikes in schools
30
regional works to decrease climate change
- European Green Deal aims to be net zero by 2050
- European climate law requires members to collectively reduce greenhouse gas emissions by at least 55% by 2030 compared to 1990 levels
- reduced emissions by 30% by 2020 which exceeded it's 20% target
- AU programs like AAI and AREI play crucial roles in helping African countries tackle climate change that disproportionately affects parts of the continent
- Africa adaption initiative launched in 2015 to focus on improving resilience through projects that enhance water security, climate mart agriculture and disaster risk management
- Africa renewable energy initiative seeks to expand renewable energy generation w goal to add @ least 300 GW of renewable capacity by 2030
= prioritises energy access for rural areas by promoting solar, wind and hydro projects that reduce reliance on fossil fuels
- ASEAN climate change initiative commitment to increase renewable energy's share in regional energy mix to 23% by 2025= ambitious target due to region's high pollution rates
= have made steady progress towards targets as Vietnam and phillipines have been using a lot of wind and solar energy
31
global civil society impact on C change
- more youth climate movements like great Thunberg and Fridays for future
= united young people across the world
= since 2018, FFF has inspired more than 14 mil participants in over 125 countries
= movement influenced German gov's decision on 'phase out' for coal and stronger emission targets
- rise in environmental IGOs like WWF, Greenpeace and friends of earth
- 2019, WWF launched 'new deal for nature and people'
= urge govs to adopt policies to reduce harm on biodiversity and C change
= set global precedent for holding Govs and corporations legally accountable for their climate impact
