Global Englishes

Question 1

Define ethnicity and race

Answer 1

ethnicity = shared social identity consisting of social practices, lang., beliefs and history
race = perceived physical differences/similarities that groups and cultures consider significant

Question 2

Define mother-tongue

Answer 2

Mother tongue = first lang.

Question 3

Define heritage language

Answer 3

Language not dominant in society in which sb lives but spoken at home

Question 4

Define intersectionality

Answer 4

social categorisations are interconnected –> race not independent of class

Question 5

Define bilingual

Answer 5

someone who speaks 2 or more langs

Question 6

Define code-switching

Answer 6

when speakers switch from one language/dialect/accent to another mid-conversation

Question 7

Define style shifting

Answer 7

when speakers adjust the way they speak based on a combination of factors such as how much attention they’re paying, who they’re speaking to, how they want to be perceived

Question 8

Who described functions of code-switching between languages? What are these functions?

Answer 8

Janet Holmes 2017
>reaffirm/signal identity and build solidarity
>perform identities, which may be different in different languages
>exclude people who don’t belong to a group

Question 9

Define ethnolect

Answer 9

variety of language associated with a particular ethnic group

Question 10

Define ethnolinguistic repertoire

Answer 10

set of linguistic resources available to individual speakers to signal ethnic identity

Question 11

Define multiethnolect

Answer 11

collection of linguistic resources combining features from a variety of languages within a multi-ethnic and multicultural context

Question 12

Define L1 and L2

Answer 12

English spoken as a first language and english spoken as a second language

Question 13

Define lingua franca

Answer 13

language adopted as a common language between speakers whose native languages are different

Question 14

Define globalisation

Answer 14

process by which business, trade etc. develop international influence or operate on an international scale

Question 15

What is the difference between a pidgin and a creole?

Answer 15

A pidgin is a grammatically simplified* (*debatable) version of a language (typically those of colonisers e.g. english), with some elements taken from local languages; it can be used for communication between people with different local languages

A creole is a pidgin that has become nativists i.e. is learnt as a first language by children

Question 16

Who came up with the theory of New Englishes? What is the theory?

Answer 16

Platt, Weber and Ho (1984)

1. English has developed through education system
2. It has developed in an area where a native variety of English not only lang. spoken by most of the pop.
3. Used for a wide range of functions among those who speak/write it in the region where it is used
4. become localised or nativists by adopting some language features of its own

Question 17

Who came up with a theory of factors about the innovation of English?
What are these factors?

Answer 17

Bambgbose (1998)

1. demographic factor - how many speakers?
2. geograhical factor - how widely dispersed is it?
3. authoritative factor - where is its use sanctioned?
4. codification factor - does it appear in reference books?
5. acceptability factor - what is the attitude towards it?

Question 18

What are Kachru’s circles?

Answer 18

INNER CIRCLE:
>eng. used as a 1st lang. and acquired by most from birth
>where it originally spread
>~380 mil
>e.g. UK, Australia, Canada

OUTER CIRCLE:
>Eng. used as 2nd lang. and plays important govt and historical role
>colonised countries e.g. Nigeria, Bangladesh, Pakistan
>produced by diaspora of Eng. spread by imperialist expansion
>not native but used as lingua franca between groups
>higher education, legislature, judiciary, commerce etc. all conducted in english
>150-300 mil

EXPANDING CIRCLE:
>Eng. not official lang but recognised as important foreign lang.
>no historical or govt. role but widely used and medium of international communication
>may be used for very specific purposes
>e.g. China, Russia

Question 19

Who criticised Kachru’s circles? Why?

Answer 19

Canagarajah (2010)

migration and modern technology have led to ‘leaking’ of clearly defined circles -> expats, transatlantic call centres

Question 20

Who came up with the circle of English? What is it? What are some criticisms?

Answer 20

McArthur
World standard English (written international English in the centre)
2nd layer consists of regional or emerging standards: Canadian, American, British, Australian/NZ, East Asian, South Asian, West, East and South African, Carribean
Outermost layer consists of localised varieties e.g. BBC english, Maori English, Nepalese English, Nigerian English

• English as a native, second and foreign lang. all conflated in second circle
• European Englishes are missing
• Pidgins, creoles and L2s in outer layer -> don’t belong to one family

Question 21

Who argued against the circle of English, saying there was no such thing as a universal English Language? What did they say?

Answer 21

Canagarajah (2005)
People construct English as it suits their purposes in a given context at a given time
functionality and pragmatics are more relevant than world standard english

Question 22

Define diaspora

What are the first and second diasporas?

Answer 22

Dispersal of language around the world
First = migrations to North America, Oceania, South Africa (Eng. as L1 regions)
Second = colonisation of Africa and Asia
(L2 varieties of English)

Question 23

Define inkhorn

Answer 23

a foreign word used in English which is deemed to be unnecessary and pretentious

Question 24

Define language death

Answer 24

process by which the level of a speech community’s linguistic competence in their lang. variety decreases eventually leading to it having no native speakers

Question 25

Who explained how English sheds its foreign-ness and becomes an indigenous variety in former colonies? What are the phases?

Answer 25

Schneider
1 - FOUNDATION:
>This is the initial stage of the introduction of English to a new territory over an extended period of time. E.g. the colonisation of India.
>Two linguistic processes are happening at this stage: (a) language contact between English and indigenous languages; (b) contact between different dialects of English of the settlers which eventually results in a new stable dialect.
> bilingualism is minimal. A few members of the local populace may play an important role as interpreters, translators and guides.
>Borrowings are limited to lexical items; with local place names and terms for local fauna and flora being adopted by the English.

2 - EXONORMATIVE STABILISATION
>At this stage, the settler communities tend to stabilise politically under British rule.
>English increases in prominence and though the colloquial English is a colonial koiné (lingua franca), the speakers look to England for their formal norms.
>Local vocabulary continues to be adopted into the local usage of English.
>Bilingualism increases amongst the indigenous population through education and increased contacts with English settlers.
>Knowledge of English becomes an asset, and a new indigenous elite develops.

3 - NATIVISATION:
>According to Schneider, this is the stage at which a transition occurs as the English settler population starts to accept a new identity based on present and local realities, rather than sole allegiance to their ‘mother country’.
>By this time, the indigenous strand has also stabilised an L2 (second language) system which uses inter-language processes, code switching and features adopted from the settlers’ koiné English.
>Neologisms stabilise as English is made to adapt to local social, political and cultural practices.

4 - ENDONORMATIVE STABILISATION
>This stage is characterised by the gradual acceptance of local norms, supported by a new locally rooted linguistic self-confidence.
>By this time political events have made it clear that the settler and indigenous strands are inextricably bound in a sense of nationhood independent of Britain.
>Acceptance of local English(es) expresses this new identity.
>National dictionaries are enthusiastically supported, at least for new lexis (but not always for localised grammar).
>Literary creativity in local English begins to flourish.

5 - DIFFERENTIATION
>At this stage there is a change in the dynamics of identity as the young nation sees itself as less defined by its differences from the former colonial power as a composite of subgroups defined on regional, social and ethnic lines.
>Coupled with the simple effects of time in effecting language change (with the aid of social differentiation) the new English koiné starts to show greater differentiation.

Question 26

What is the Portuguese monogenesis theory of the origins of creoles?

Answer 26

> based on trade languages with mostly Portuguese lexicon which slaves learned -> simplicity and similarity between creoles comes from the idea of monogenesis (one common origin)

Question 27

What is the restricted monogenesis hypothesis?

Answer 27

> limited to English/French lexifier creoles

>jargon/pidgin from West African coast formed primary source

Question 28

What is the European dialect theory of the origins of creoles?

Answer 28

> non-standard dialects of colonial langs. developed into creoles
result of migration and nautical language
similarity only holds between those deriving from same colonial language
simplicity comes from non-standard being simpler

Question 29

What is the baby/foreigner talk theory of the origins of creoles?

Answer 29

> Based on similarities between certain pidgins and early speech of children
frozen stages in 2nd language learning sequence
Also because speakers of the dominant language use foreigner talk (simplified speech) with L2 speakers

Question 30

What is the imperfect second language learning theory of the origins of creoles?

Answer 30

> creoles are crystallisation of some stage in second language learning process
speakers of the porto-creole did not have sufficient access to the model so create approximative system
similarity comes from universal properties of the language learning process
simplicity comes from simplification inherent in language learning

Question 31

What is the afro-genesis theory of the origins of creoles?

Answer 31

> creoles in Atlantic region emerged through relexification by slaves of West African langs. under influence of colonial langs. or transfer of African lang. structures in process of learning creoles

Question 32

What is the common social context theory of the origins of creoles?

Answer 32

> slave plantations imposed communicative requirements on slaves lacking a common language

Question 33

What is the bioprogram theory of the origins of creoles?

Answer 33

> creoles invention of children growing up on plantations who heard pidgins spoken without enough structure to function as native language so they used their innate language capacity to turn them into full languages
innate capacity is universal, hence the similarity
simple because they reflect most basic language structures