Global Connections: Powers And Borders Flashcards
1
Q
What is sovereignty?
A
Complete authority of the government over the land and its people in its territory
2
Q
What is territorial integrity?
A
The principle that the defined territory of a state, over which it has exclusive and legitimate control of its borders. Other countries cannot invade these borders.
3
Q
What is a state?
A
An area of land, of an independent country, with well-defined boundaries, within which the people are under a single government.
4
Q
What are the six characteristics of a state?
A
- A defined territory that is internationally recognised
- A single government that is internationally recognised - usually through a UN membership
- Capacity to engage in formal relations with other states
- Independent and self-governing (other states should not interfere with running of a state ie “external sovereignty)
- Maintains sovereignty (ie political authority) effectively throughout its territory via STATE APPARATUS
- Permanent population (non-normalised) who has the right to self-determination.
5
Q
What is state apparatus
A
Refers to the set of institutions and organisations the government have access to such as legal services like police education and health services.
6
Q
What is self determination?
A
The right of a group or community to vote and determine the government which will control them.
7
Q
What factors enable a states power over other states
A
Political
International relations
Internal political organisation
Economic
Trade strength
Industrial development
Social
Demographic structure
History
Global spread of cultural attributes
Military power
Physical
Geographical location
Exploitation of natural resources
Economic power
8
Q
What is a nation?
A
A large group of people of people with a shared strong identity united by culture, language, religion or tradition
9
Q
How do nations differ from a state?
A
1) Spatially - nations can live across multiple states and across a wide area
2) Can co-exist with other national in a territory
3) usually nations do not have sovereignty over an area
(The kurds)
10
Q
What is a nation-state?
A
When a nation has an independent state of its own, its referred to as a nation state
11
Q
What is a norm?
A
The universally accepted standard of behaviour for states based on moral principles and customs.
12
Q
What does UN article 2.1 state.
A
This means all member states have equal right to determine their own form of government, who can make the authorities’ decisions. Also, it has the responsibility to respect the sovereignty of other states.
13
Q
What does article 2.4 of the UN charter state?
A
Makes specific reference to the preservation of the territorial integrity and political independence of a state. (Must not invade another nation)
14
Q
What are the two things that article 4.1 of the UN charter state?
A
Infers that states must promote and develop
1) friendly external relations between nations
2) To respect, protect, and fulfil human rights, to allow citizens to be involved in authorities decisions and to protect citizens
15
Q
What Is a treaty?
A
A formally concluded and ratified agreement between states
16
Q
Give examples if fragile states that cannot comply with the norms and why can’t they?
A
Niger, Ukraine, Yemen, Chad, Sudan, Somalia
This is because the sovereign government does not have the state apparatus to fulfil the obligations
17
Q
What happens when a state fails to comply with the norms?
A
Intervention will.be put in place to restore peace and safety of its citizens
18
Q
What are the three parts if the responsibility to protect norm?
A
1) Primary responsibility, which is done by the states. Protection from genocide, war crimes, crimes against humanity, and ethnic cleansing.
2) International communities have a responsibility to assist states and should use appropriate diplomatic humanitarian and other peaceful menas to protect the state.
3) If a state fails to protect its population, then the international community must be prepared to take stronger measures, including the use of force such as the UN Security Council.
19
Q
What is intervention?
A
When international organisations like the UN act to resolve conflict, challenges, and crises in other states, arising from challenges to sovereignty and territorial integrity.
20
Q
When is intervention deemed necessary?
A
1) Violation of human rights
2) Civil wars/corrupt government
3) Ethnic tension/religious fundamentalism
4) Terrorist activity
21
Q
What are 4 main types of intervention?
A
1) Economic sanctions such as embargoes (prevention of trade)
2) Military action
3) Peacekeeping missions by UN/NATO
4) Humanitarian aid for CSOs (NGOs)
22
Q
Why is intervention sometimes controversial?
A
The principle of sovereignty that is promoted by the UN is undermined by the act of intervention.
23
Q
What are geopolitics?
A
The balance of political power and international relations but is unevenly distributed around the world.
24
Q
Why does the power differ between AC’s, EDC’s and LIDC’s?
A
1) Economic power
2) Level of development
3) Political power of government
4) Demographic structure
5) International relations
25
How do supernational organisations such as the UN, EU, ASEAN, and OPEC assert power?
Interventions such as military, humanitarian aid, and economic sanctions.
26
How do TNCs exert power?
Increasing influence on countries in which they locate as globalisation continues. Their power to invest and de invest in a country is what makes them powerful especially in EDCs and LIDCS.
27
What considerations must be ensured when intervention occurs?
1) Reasons why intervention is necessary
2) The appropriate type of intervention is used
3) Political composition of groups of countries and organisations
4) Government and people affected
5) Characteristic features of the country
6) Potential socio-economic, environmental, and political effects.
28
What is global governance?
When international communities intervene
29
What is the Westphalian model?
Sets the principles of sovereignty, territorial integrity, and sovereign equality of all states.
Essentially, a state can not interfere with the sovereignty and the territory of another state since they are equal enforced by the UN charter.
30
What causes the principles of the Westphalian model to be eroded?
Destructive and destabilising forces interact to erode the principles, causing borders to be increasingly contested.
31
What are 6 factors that cause contested boundaries as well as erode sovereignty and territorial integrity?
1) Contested territory (Russias annexation of Crimea)
2) Contested maritime borders (many islands and oceans disputed over for resources and exploration rights, eg, South China Islands)
3) Transnational movement of terrorist and extremist activity (eg, across Turkey Syria border where smuggling of foreign fighters, oil, weapons eroding the territorial integrity)
4) The legacy of colonialism (Scramble of Africa where political boundaries were created by foreign cou tries causing ethnic tension)
5) Repeating (eg, claims for secession by Catalonia and Scotland)
6) Fractional or Ethnic tensions (Middle East and North Africa where political and ethnic conflict occurs)
32
What benefits do TNCs provide countries (especially LIDC's)
1) Helping host countries to integrate into the global economy
2) Encourage development
3) Provide investments and create jobs for locals
4) Boost exports and improve the trade balance.
5) Develop and improve skill levels and expertise as well as technology for workers
6) Increased spending and creating the multiplier effect on local economies
7) May attract related investment by suppliers and create clusters of economic activity.
33
What challenges do TNCs introduce to the sovereignty of a country?
1)Have the power to invest and de invest.
2) Disrespected human rights such as child labour, poor working conditions, and low wages.
This directly challenges the state apparatus and, therefore, the ability of a state to uphold its obligations stated in the norms of the UN charter.
34
How has global governance helped reduce the impact of TNCs on host nations?
The UN established guidelines in the UN Global Compact helping states establish their state apparatus
35
Summarise what the global compact guidlines state.
1) Comply with human rights
2) Labour needs to be fair, with no child labour, good wages, and eliminate discrimination
3) Environmental protection - need to help support emth environment and develop net zero tech.
4) Anti corruption such as bribery not allowed
36
What are supernational institutions?
Represent a tier of governance above thst of the individual states.
37
Give examples of global international institutions and regional international institutions.
Global- WTO, UN, IMF
Regional- UN, EU, ECOWAS
38
How are member states apart of international institutions?
All member states retain sovereignty over their citizens and country, but having a membership means they are bound by laws and requirements of their institutions, so some of their sovereignty is surrendered.
39
How does the EU policy on TRADE impact state sovereignty?
Countries in the euro zone lose control over their monetary policy, such as interest rates. Free movement of members may lead to inflows of workers, which may lead to racial tension.
40
How does the EU policy on FUNDING BAIL-OUT FUNDS impact state sovereignty?
Economic problems in one country may cause Europe wide recessions and the need for bail-outs.
41
How does the EU policy on FISHERIES impact state sovereignty?
Enforced fishing quotas, which may harm the fishing industry in cou tries such as Spain and the UK. Members most follow the common fisheries policy to preserve marine biodiversity.
42
How does the EU policy on ADDRESSING INTERNATIONAL CRIME impact state sovereignty?
National security is given to the EU due to being a member of Europe which weakens the state as intelligence of said state is shared with all members.
43
How does the EU policy on ADDRESSING AIR AND WATER POLLUTION impact state sovereignty?
Must follow laws of the EU for international water directives and international air directives, leading to weakness sovereignty.
44
What is the major limitations of being part of the EU?
The major limitation to sovereignty is that the member states must implement EU laws and decisions even if they did not vote for them. They can not pass laws in the interest of their own state if they conflict with those of the EU.
45
How does the political dominance of ethinic groups affect sovereignty and territorial integrity?
Ethnic groups do not always coincide with current political borders due to legacy if colonialism
Example: the kurds or Tuareq who occupy 5 states in sub Sahara Africa.
Therefore, it could lead to conflict as ethnic groups with a strong identity demand independence and the right to self-determination eroding sovereignty.
46
What are some examples of ethnic dominance thrratening territorial integrity and sovereignty?
The Tuareg tribe - Fought for independence and the right to self-determination in the Azawad region of 2012
The Dinker and Nuer tribe in South Sudan - Around 60 different ethnic groups, of which the Dinka and Nuer are the largest, internal conflict between thee can result in the erosion of sovereignty as the government may be unable to protect its citizens
47
What is the case study used to show the challenges to sovereignty and territorial integrity due to a struggle for independence
The Basque Nation
48
Describe the location of the Basque nation
Straddles the international border of northern Spain and SW France. Western end of pyrenees and include 4 provinces in Spain and 3 in france. 3.1 Million population
49
Describe the Basque culture
Unique language called Euskara taught in schools. Strong tradition od indepence - political autonomy with Basque parliament. Many traditions and cultural features are maintained in architecture food and dance.
50
Describe and explain the Basque conflict
Recent issues have been the disrespect of political prisoners among French and Spanish prisons. These include members of the ETA terrorist group, pro-independence politicians, members of the Basque youth movement, and journalists.
51
What is the case study for a country in which sovereignty has been challenged?
Ukraine Case Study
52
Give some background details of the Ukraine case study
Ukraine used to be part of the USSR in 1991 when it gained independence. The loss of Ukraine was a blow to Russia's superpower image especially as Ukraine linked with the west. Crisis began 2013.
53
What was the internal political division of Ukraine?
Ukrainian speaking West
Russian speaking East
77.8% Ukrainian
17.3% Russian
So is difficult to govern the country as a whole
54
What were the challenges to government in Ukraine?
Country has struggled to build a national indentity due to ethnic tensions.
Weak state apparatus
Huge levels of corruption
Poor government policy demonstrations
Rigged elections
55
What are some problems causing the erosion of sovereignty in Ukraine?
-Legal system to deal with corruption and smuggling not fit for purpose
-Reliant of Russia for energy
-Unfair electoral system (Rigged)
-Needs better control over police and armed forces
-Welfare system needs strengthening healthcare and educational systems.
56
What was the turning point of Ukraine?
-Suspended talks of trade deals with EU and favoured Russia who won the "Tug of war" with EU
-This move was seen as a corrupt and incompetent government so led to massive protests (Euromaidan). This
lead to Ukrainian president Yanukovych out of power.
-Clashes between protesters and government became known as revolution of dignity.
-Parts of Ukraine wanted to join EU/NATO whilst Russia and other parts of Ukraine wanted to stop this.
-Putin saw the revolution of dignity as a fascist coup by western backed forces.
-In 2014, Russia annexes Crimea
-Military conflict in Donbas region with separatists funded by Russia. Ukrainian government vs Russia backed by
separatists.
57
What were the impacts on the people because of the erosion of sovereignty on Ukraine?
-1.47 million internally displaced people from Eastern Ukraine, 600k migrated to Russia
-7000 deaths; 13,000 in 2020
-13,900 injuries
-Shelling and bombing caused environmental damage, forest fires, steppes valley burning.
-IDPs (Internally displaced peoples) living in camps with poor access to healthcare, food and medicine.
-Town of Debal'tseve destroyed
-Despite ceasefire, fighting for railway hubs continue.
-7000 trapped in the city without power, heating or water
-Donetsk airport destroyed by heavy fighting
-Coal mines and chemical works failed
-Loss of power and sanitation widespread.
58
What is happening in Ukraine today?
Economic sanctions by US/EU caused rouble (Russian currency) to drop.
NATO assisted Ukraine by sending troops into Baltics to prevent Russian aggression.
Military practicing with UK/US.
Putin invaded Ukraine in February of 2022
59
What is the Ukrainian case study an example of ?
Erosion of state sovereignty and territorial integrity
60
What are 4 factors that have caused challenges to the Ukraine's government?
1. Geographical position
2. Internal political divide
3. Ethnic disparities
4. Inability to build a national identity and develop a strong state apparatus
61
How did the geographical position cause challenge to the government in Ukraine?
Lies between Russia and NATO countries parts of the population supporting EU and parts favouring Russia.
62
How did internal political divide cause challenge to the government in Ukraine?
Russian-speaking provinces in the East and the Ukrainian speaking west.
Large groups supporting EU and Russia make it hard to govern the country and get decisions made leads to un rest such as Euromaidan which caused the pro Russian government to be removed.
63
How did Ethnic disparities cause challenge to the government in Ukraine?
The two main ethnic groups are Ukrainian (77.8%) and Russian (17.3%)
Pro-Russian separatists in the East.
64
How did the inability to build a common national identity and state apparatus cause challenge to the government in Ukraine?
Has been endemic corruption, attempts to rig an election, unpopular government policies and demonstrations.
Some of which have been extremely violent. Strong history of corruption with rigged elections and broken legal system. Reliant on Russia for gas and other energy sources.
65
How can challenges to sovereignty and territorial integrity lead to conflict over natural resources and what is the case study for this?
There is competition for the same, or scarce, resources such as water supplies , agricultural land or oil.
Kashmir case study - Indus water treaty 1960.
66
How has water supply has led to conflict between India and Pakistan in the Kashmir case study?
Legacy of colonialism was the main drive
Conflict over the Indus is important for irrigation and power (hydro electric).
Pakistan occupy the lower Indus basin complains India is affecting the water supply.
-Contested territory, ethnic and cultural differences make it worse
-Troops stationed in the Karakorum range protecting the Siachen glacier (source of the river Indus)
67
What was the 1960 Indus Treaty?
Mediated by the world bank
Pakistan has unrestricted use in the western tributaries
India had unrestricted use in the Eastern tributaries
68
What are other challenges to sovereignty and territorial integrity?
Citizens treated unjustly, or groups have limited representation in government
There is competition for resources
People seek self-determination are suppressed
Government fails to protect its citizens
Peoples religious or political beliefs are persecuted
Differing ethnic identities and conflict between them.
A government fails to supply basic human rights
Invasion of a state by another
69
Why is the dispute escalating in Pakistan and India?
-Rapid growth of population, increasing demand for water
-Water resource is depleting due to the glacier retreat (Global warming)
-Keeping water dries River Basin changing the land and the amount of water can be held.
70
What 3 main themes is the global peace index split into?
1- Level of safety and security in a society
2- Number of international and domestic conflicts
3 - Degree of militarisation
71
What is the global peace index?
Patterns of conflict represented on a map.
72
Give examples of international organisations
UN, WTO (World trade organisation) , IMF (International monetary fund)
73
Give examples of regional organisations
EU, ECOWAS, NATO
74
Give examples of international civil society organisations (CSOs)
OXFAM, Red Cross, UNICEF
75
What does the UN aim to do?
1- Achieve world wide peace and security
2. Develop good relations between nations
3. Foster corporation among nations
76
What are 10 methods the UN uses to maintain peace and security in a state?
1. Preventative diplomacy and mediation
2. Peacekeeping
3. Peacebuilding
4. Counter terrorism
5. Treaty making
6. Disarmament
7. Upholding international law
8. Delivering humanitarian aid
9. Promoting sustainable development
10. Settling disputes between states
77
What does NATO aim to do?
Safeguard the freedom and security of its 30 members through political and military means
78
How does NATO safeguard its members through political means?
NATO promotes democratic values and encourages consultation and co-operation on defence and security to help prevent conflict.
79
How does NATO safeguard its members through military means?
NATO attempts to achieve peaceful resolution of disputes. If diplomatic measures are ineffective it has the military capacity and mandate needed to undertake crisis management operations either alone or in co-operation with other countries and international organisations.
80
How does the EU ensure international peace and security?
1. Foreign affairs and security policy
2. Common security and defence policy
3. European neighbourhood policy.
81
How does the Foreign Affairs and Security policy (EU Policy) ensure peace and security?
-Provides an important security role, provides forces from member states
-Preserve peace and international security
-Promote international co-operation
-Develop and consolidate respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms, rule of law and democracy.
82
How does the Common Security and Defence Policy (EU Policy) ensure peace and security?
-Join discrimination operations
-Humanitarian and rescue tasks
-Military advice and assistance
-Conflict prevention and peacekeeping
-Crisis management, including peace-making and post conflict stabilisation
83
How does the European Neighbourhood Policy (EU Policy) ensure peace and security?
The Eastern partnership is a key element of EU foreign relations in which the EU aims to co-operate with its close neighbour states in Eastern Europe in terms of security, stability and prosperity.
84
Who do NGOs work with?
1. Global institutions - UN, NATO, IMF, WHO
2. Regional groups - EU, ECOWAS, IGAD
3. National and local governments
4. Citizens in conflict zones
85
What unique role do NGOs have?
They are not biased and not under governmental control
86
Give some examples of NGOs
OXFAM, Save the children, UNICEF, Red Cross, World Vision
87
How has ACCORD (NGO) helped resolve conflict in South Sudan?
Hosted dialogue on peace building
Conducted conflict assessment skills training
Helped female parliamentarians
Trains negotiators in mediation and negotiation
88
What are global commons?
Areas outside a nation state such as:
Antarctica
Outer space
High seas
Atmosphere
As there are no "laws" but commons should be followed.
89
What is the role of ideas in geopolitical intervention?
.exchanging ideas/info in the planning stage and during an operation is important (e.g. the UNHRC employs experts, rapporteurs)
. conferences are held for international organisations to share ideas for course of action
. international organisations share ideas and info
90
What is the role of tech in geopolitical intervention?
. helps communication and spread of info/ideas
. social media
. remote satellite imagery is used for surveillance in insecure areas that are inaccessible/dangerous
. NGOs like Amnesty International publish information on HR abuses to increase awareness
91
What is the role of people in geopolitical intervention?
-Workers for NGO
-UN security council
92
What is the case study used to look at the strategies of global governance in an area of conflict?
South Sudan
93
When was South Sudan separated from Sudan?
2011 due to civil war over oil and resources
94
Although South Sudan became independent why was there still tension?
Ethnic tensions between Nuer and Dinka tribes, in 2013 another civil war occurred between the two tribes.
95
Who was the president and vice president of South Sudan and what ethnicity were they?
President - Kiir part of the Dinka tribe.
Vice President - Machar part of the Nuer tribe
96
What were the social impacts of the civil war between 2013-2015 in South Sudan?
400k dead
1.5 million IDPs
3.6 million at risk of food insecurity
1 i n3 children suffered malnutrition
730k refugees fled to neighbouring countries such as Kenya and Ethiopia
Therefore needed global governance to help
97
What was the peacekeeping mission called that the UN started for South Sudan?
UNMISS- to reinforce the mandate
2013 - encouraged stronger state apparatus, and protect civilians
12500 military personnel to stop the civil war
1000 police sent in to stop corruption
2500 humanitarian personel
98
Why did South Sudan become independent?
Sudan's borders were drawn by colonial powers and didn't take in the fact of the different ethnicities.
Physical difference - South Sudan is jungle, Sudan is desert.
Religious reasons - Most northerners were Arabic speaking Muslims while the south were made up of Christians
Political reasons - The government was based in the North and discriminated the south of the country so people wanted to split.
99
What caused the civil war between the two tribes in South Sudan?
Machar's removal as vice president led to violence between Dinka and nuer tribes. Dinka allied with Kiir and nuer allied with Machar. Armed groups targeted civilians. Led to erosion of sovereignty.
100
When was the first peace treaty signed in South Sudan?
2015 - Kiir signed a peace agreement with Machar
101
What international organisation was involved to intervene South Sudan's conflict?
UN
WHO
102
What delegations did the UN make to help build peace in South Sudan?
UNMISS - Sent troops, but was deemed as unsuccessful as it meant more people died. Short term.
UNICEF - Helped vaccinate children and feed them - Increased the mortality rate. Short term
UNOCHA - Helped with humanitarian aid due to food and water insecurity - short term
UNHCR - Helped build peace between the two tribes and helped with refugees - Singed peace treaties so stopped further conflict, long term
WHO - Set up Cholera treatment centres and provieded advice on hygiene.
103
What regional organisation was involved to intervene South Sudan's conflict?
IGAD (Intergovernmental Authority of Development)
104
What role did IGAD play in resolving the South Sudan conflcit?
Involved in mediation via the IGAD plus peace process in 2015
105
What were the 4 main IGAD treaties that were signed and ratified by the government in South Sudan?
1) Convention against torture
2) Africa charter on human and peoples rights
3) Convention on the elimination of all forms of discrimination against women
4) Convention on the rights of children.
106
Why were the IGAD peace treaties unsuccessful?
Lack of government - Still were in poverty, water was insecure, huamn trafficking was at large, grazing rights were all ignored.
However a new treaty was signed in 2018.
107
How many NGOs were working with South Sudan to help mediate the conflict and what was the problem with these NGOs?
300
Major issues of harassment and violence against the workers.
108
Give examples of NGOs in South Sudan
Medecins Sans Frontieres (MSF)
AMREF
OXFAM
Save the children.
109
What were the 4 pillars that OXFAM wanted to achieve?
1. Saving lives now and in the future
2. Resilient livelihoods to improve the QoL
3. Addressing gender justice
4. Governance and active citizenship
110
Why was global governance hard to do in South Sudan?
National government failed to build a sense of national identity, because of corruption and lack of education as well as differing ethnicities.
111
How did the National Government in south Sudan obstruct the peace-making process?
1- Put ambitions before citizens
2. Human rights violation continued
3. Attacks on UN peacekeepers, humanitarian workers, and IDPs in camps
4. IGAD tried to mediate but the government prevented representatives from travelling
5. Ratified treaties but were broken such as in 2015 and 2018
112
How has global governance benefited local communities in South Sudan?
1. Aid helped with emergency food and water
2. Villages received training on fishing
3. Children treated for malnutrition
4. Aid workers negotiated access in fighting areas to help with the injuries
5. Civilian camps have been expanded for IDPs
6. WHO set up cholera treatment centres.
7. Coordinated efforts to fund from European governments.
113
What is the case study for strategies of global governance in an LIDC?
Mali
114
What are the challenges to sovereignty and territorial integrity in Mali?
-ethnic tensions due to borders made of European colonial powers during the scramble for Africa
-Tuareg rebel groups started armed conflict with Mali government in Jan 2012
-Tuareg declared "Azawad" as an independent state in April 2012
-"National movement for the liberation of Azawad" (name for the conflict) caused attempted military coup
-Mali attacked another ethnic group killing 100, so more ethnic tension rose.
-Problems with national identity.
115
What was the response to the challenges sovereignty and territorial integrity of Mali?
-France sent 5000 troops in 2013 to protect civilians
-However violence continued so the UN created MINUSMA to stabilise civilians, re-establish authority and provide humanitarian aid and assistance for IDPs
-UN sent 9000 military, 1000 police
-NGOs such as PSI (reproductive health projects), Care (Educational projects based in Mopti region and helped with nutrition and hygiene) and Solidarites international (Rebuilding health centres in Gao region and helped get access to clean water and sanitation facilities.
116
Was the response of global governance successful in maintaining sovereignty and territorial integrity in Mali?
GOOD
-MINUSMA support enabled peaceful elections
-Peace agreement made in 2015 which gave the Tuareg more control in the North, recognition of local leaders, more state budget in the North, better representation for the north and helped rebuild state apparatus.
-Improvements on life expectancy and GDP per capita (from NGOs)
HOWEVER
-15,000 troops now compared to 9000 in 2013, still 5000 French insurgents as well.
-Deadliest UHN mission killing 209 of the UN security council
-Rural location meant rise of Al-Qaeda and Islamic state due to weak sovereignty and low state apparatus. Increasing instability in North of Mali, attacking civilians government and MINUISMA
-Lack of state apparatus meant that it was a major spot for human trafficking and drugs to America so created worse territorial integrity.
-50,000 IDPs to begin with now 300,000
-20
117
What is MINSUMA and when was it established? What has it involved and what are its aims?
UN Multidimensional Integrated Stabilisation Mission in Mali - established by UN security council in 2013
Aims to support political process and stabilise Mali, ensure security, protect civilians, assist re-establishment of state authority and promote and protect human rights
There are currently over 9000 military personnel and 1000 police involved
They operate in main population centres - keeping open important lines of communication and providing humanitarian assistance - including returns of displaced persons and preparation for free and peaceful elections
118
Give some examples of how NGOs have been involved in global governance of Mali
Population Services International - reproductive health services
Care - food security and poverty alleviation
World Education Mali - addressing educational barriers to literacy
Solidarités International - water, hygiene, sanitation and food security in northern settlements, including Timbuktu
119
Despite the presence of MINUSMA, why have the efforts of NGOs been increasingly difficult to implement?
Areas of armed bandits involved in kidnapping, car jacking, smuggling and land mines
120
What are some opportunities of increasing the stability of Mali?
-Restoring the sovereignty of the state and rule of law
-Preserving territorial integrity by avoiding new borders being drawn
-More autonomy given to the North of Mali (like Scotland)
-More budget allocated to the region
-More representation in government
-Elected leaders for the region
-Ensuring peacefully and democratic national elections take place.
121
What are some opportunities of growth in Mali?
-Ensured the mining industry (sold major export) is governed and regulated to avoid corruption and improve economic growth.
-Enabled infrastructure projects to build and help connect the North to the national economy.
-Rural electrification projects improved roads and airports to allow for aid and trade.
122
What were some opportunities for development in Mali?
-Helped farmers use sustainable techniques and gain access to food markets.
-Reducing attacks on schools increases the enrolment and student retention
-Better access to health and facilities, so less malnutrition and food insecurity.
123
What are some challenges of inequality in Mali?
-High inequality
-Severely underdeveloped nation - 0.427 HDI (184/189)
-Mali is poor - GDP per capita than $900
-Gender inequality
-Significant economic inequality between the North and South (North is poorer due to sub-Sahara)
-Urban - rural divide in terms of basic services and sanitation
-Cultural and linguistic divisions between ethnic groups restrict peace
-Conflict over sparse resources between groups.
124
What are some challenges to injustice in Mali?
-Government fails to protect against human rights abuse especially girls and women who are forced into marriage and domestic violence.
-Women/girls suffer in areas too such as education opportunities and lack of representation in the government as well as high death rates due to birthing.
-Terrorism and trafficking child solider conscription
-Government cant police country against extremist activity
-Drug smuggling facility to protect its citizens due to weak state apparatus
-Refugees displaced to nearby countries and IDPs (61k to Nigeria and 72k to Algeria).
