Global Commons: Antarctica (3.51)

Question 1

Describe the location of Antarctica

Answer 1

Antarctica is the 5th largest, most southern continent containing the geographic South Pole.

Question 2

Explain the concept of the global commons (4)

Answer 2

1. The global commons refers to the Earth’s shared resources.
2. This includes outer space, the atmosphere, the high seas and deep oceans and Antarctica.
3. These are not governed by any one country or organisation, creating common access resources.
4. The Tragedy of the Commons occurs when these resources are over-exploitation.

Question 3

What is the ‘Tragedy of the Commons’?

Answer 3

When a shared common access resource is over-exploited by a party acting out of self-interest.

Question 4

List 3 reasons for the increasing pressure on global commons like Antarctica

Answer 4

1. Population growth
2. Industrialisation and development increasing the demand for resources
3. The spread of new technologies enhancing accessibility.

Question 5

What is the climate of Antarctica?

Answer 5

With an average temperature of -49°C and annual precipitation of less than 250mm/year, it is the coldest, driest and windiest desert continent on Earth.

Question 6

Antarctica contains____of all ice on Earth and around____of the fresh water. (comma in-between)

Answer 6

90%, 70%

Question 7

What is Antarctica’s wildlife and ecosystem like? (2)

Answer 7

1. Antarctica has a fragile marine ecosystem.
2. Only specially adapted flora and fauna can survive, but the surrounding sea supports a variety of marine birds, e.g., penguins.

Question 8

What is the Antarctic convergence?

Answer 8

The point at which cold Antarctic water meets the warmer water to the North.

Question 9

What is Antarctica’s ice coverage?

Answer 9

99% of the land is covered by ice, averaging 2km in thickness.

Question 10

Which areas of Antarctica are considered to be a part of the global commons?

Answer 10

The whole of Antarctica with the Southern Ocean as far north as the Antarctic Convergence

Question 11

What are the 5 main threats to Antarctica?

Answer 11

1. Climate change
2. Fishing and whaling
3. Search for mineral resources
4. Tourism
5. Scientific research

Question 12

Outline the threat of climate change on Antarctica (4)

Answer 12

1. Climate change is causing a loss of ice from the ice sheet in Antarctica.
2. Air temperatures in the Antarctic Peninsula have risen by 3°C in the last 50 years, making it one of the most rapidly warming places in the world.
3. Combined with the higher CO2 concentrations, which react with saltwater to cause ocean acidification, threats to the fragile marine ecosystem have risen.
4. Species of penguins like Adelie have fallen, and krill populations have declined by 80% since the 1970s.

Question 13

How significant is the threat of climate change in Antarctica? (4)

Answer 13

1. Climate change is the most significant long-term threat to Antarctica.
2. Despite the partial thickening of East Antarctica’s ice sheet and the COP28 climate change mitigation plans, Antarctic ice melt is ongoing.
3. Rising temperatures causing the majority of ice retreat from the West Antarctic Ice Sheet (WAIS) impacts global sea levels, which have risen by 3mm/year since the 1990s.
4. This destabilises the ice shelves, further increasing the calving rate in a positive feedback loop.

Question 14

Outline the threat of fishing and whaling in Antarctica (4)

Answer 14

1. Antarctica’s ‘discovery’ in the early 18th century led to exploitative activities, including fishing and whaling, an example of the Tragedy of the Commons.
2. In 2013, more than 200,000 tonnes of Antarctic krill were fished, generating knock-on effects on the rest of the food web, from larger fish to penguins.
3. Although the IWC banned all commercial whaling in 1982, Japan has recently resumed whaling for cultural reasons, posing a future threat.
4. The difficulty in monitoring illegal fishing could make it challenging to maintain sustainable fish stocks.

Question 15

How significant is the threat of fishing and whaling in Antarctica?

Answer 15

1. Unsustainable fishing is a major threat, with species like the Patagonian Toothfish becoming endangered.
2. Commercial whaling was a significant threat in the past, with many whales hunted to near extinction.
3. However, since the Southern Whale Sanctuary, whale populations have shown evidence of slow recovery.
4. Despite this, continued hunting by Norway and Japan may increase the threat of whaling in the future.

Question 16

Outline the threat of a search for minerals in Antarctica (3)

Answer 16

1. Antarctica is known for mineral deposits like manganese, silver, gold, oil and coal under the Southern Ocean.
2. Mineral mining is prohibited by the Protocol on Environmental Protection in the Antarctic Treaty.
3. Any mineral exploitation would have to overcome the hostile environment as sizeable deposits are hard to reach.

Question 17

How significant is the threat of a search for minerals in Antarctica?

Answer 17

1. The threat of a search for minerals could increase on a temporal scale.
2. Currently, regulations imposed by the Madrid Protocol protect Antarctica from over-exploitation.
3. However, this may change in the future when the ban is revisited in 2048 as there have been signs of countries like China and Russia wanting to push this forward for their interest in mineral wealth.

Question 18

What attracted small-scale tourism in Antarctica the 1950s?

Answer 18

Antarctica’s physical isolation, unspoilt landscapes and remarkable wildlife

Question 19

How have tourist numbers grown?

Answer 19

From less than 2000 visitors/year in the 1980s to around 75,000 in 2019/20.

Question 20

What has facilitated the rise in tourism?

Answer 20

Advances in transport, technology and clothing have made the wilderness more accessible, and the diversification of ‘adventure tourism’ is captivating those with sufficient wealth to visit.

Question 21

Explain 2 benefits of tourism in Antarctica (2)

Answer 21

1. Tourism is financially exclusive, meaning visitors tend to be responsible, well-educated and environmentally aware. Hence, only 10/200 landing sites have shown signs of wear and tear.
2. The Antarctic Treaty rules that the minimal number of tourists that visit must remain a minimum of 5m away from wildlife to mitigate disruption to the fragile ecosystem.

Question 22

Explain 2 negative impacts tourism is having on Antarctica (2)

Answer 22

1. Shipping has led to the accidental introduction of invasive species like the Mediterranean mussel, disrupting food webs.
2. Cruises and air travel have increased water and air pollution.

Question 23

How significant is the threat of tourism in Antarctica?

Answer 23

Tourism is still relatively sustainable on a small-scale, but this does not dismiss the threat it could impose in the future as tourist numbers rise.

Question 24

Outline the threat of scientific research in Antarctica (4)

Answer 24

1. Antarctica is a major site for environmental and scientific research.
2. It represents a multinational laboratory home to a transient population of about 4000 scientists from 30 nations.
3. The work requires many facilities, including scientist bases, roads to transport supplies and places to store fuel, all of which are intrusive to the ecosystem.
4. Until the 1980s, excess waste created in the research bases was either burned or dumped into the sea.

Question 25

How significant is the threat of scientific research in Antarctica?

Answer 25

The threat of scientific research is a concern that has been greatly overlooked by its research findings.

Question 26

What has Antarctic ice core drilling and analysis enabled?

Answer 26

An abundance of information on past climatic conditions and CO2 and CH4 content.

Question 27

Scientific research has facilitated the understanding of:

Answer 27

1. Human activities contributing to contemporary global warming.
2. Climates that have changed throughout geological time, following natural cycles.
3. Provided the clearest link between GHG levels and global surface temperatures, raising awareness.

Question 28

Define sovereignty

Answer 28

The right of a country to govern itself

Question 29

How much of the world’s land does Antarctica cover?

Answer 29

Antarctica covers 10% of the world’s land

Question 30

How many countries have made territorial claims to segments of Antarctica?

Answer 30

7