Global Commons/Antarctica Flashcards
Define global commons
-Earths shared resources such as deep oceans, outer space,/supranational online space, atmosphere and Antarctica (only land mass).
-No national governance so used jointly by nations.
-Due to no single jurisdictions, tragedy of commons/over exploitation of resources.
-All have the right to benefit from these and it’s in the best long term interest of all to ensure we use these sustainability - damage them and we all bear the consequences.
Where is Antarctica? Give some background info
Southern hemisphere, South Pole, surrounded by southern ocean.
A continent. Vulnerable to environmental/political change.
Earths last wilderness.
Describe 4 physical features
-90% of all ice on earth
-Little sunshine for portions of year and largest desert system.
-Upwelling of nutrient rich cold water where it meets with other oceans = krill.
-Mosses and lichens are main specially adapted plants. Fragile marine ecosystems, heavily dependent on other species survival.
Give 3 climate change potential impacts (can talk about acidification and ice shelves too)
-4km ice sheets thick grave threat from climate change. But, interior has become thicker.
-Temp in Antarctic peninsula has risen up to 3 degrees Celsius over past 50 years - more extreme than rest of world in a small area. More ice bergs means shipping threat
-Ice algae declines leading to reduced significantly reduced Krill and thus whales.
Give 3 tourism impacts
-Unspoilt nature being a tourist attraction for rich which is a negative feedback loop. Relatively small scale tourism on large area of land. Seals and penguins not been largely impacted. 95% landing sites not affected.
-Over 100k visitors 2023 and usually short stay. From shrinking world effect. Invasive species risk from ships eg Mediterranean mussels
-Risk of litter and waste causing water pollution/air.Legally have to take all waste home. How to enforce effectively? Slow decomposition due to cold of -49. Is it negligible compared to scientists waste potential who live there year round?
-MS vessel crashes in 2007 and major oil leak.
-Grwoing demand for services due to affluence eg kayaking here.
Search for resources: Describe this
-Coal and oil reserves here. Weddell sea Potential for future exploitation of other stores are depleted. But, difficult to transport resources to extract.
-Has been banned by Protocol on environmental protection.
Fishing and whaling threats
Are figures accurate
-Whaling still occurs but populations of whales are slowly recovering due to slow reproduction.
-Fish stocks have partly recovered. But patogonian toothfish at risk. This has wider impacts on food chain and mammals that depend on these.
-Antarctic treaty issued quotas. But, illegal fishing occurs- 5x greater than suggested figures.Only put restrictions in place at a crucial point
Describe the Antarctic treaty 1959 purpose and scope
-Has special status. 52 nations signed. Peace and science. Madrid protocol in 1991 till 2048. Ban on mining. Flora and fauna protection
-Nobody owns Antarctica. Success.
-No indigenous people here so has made decisions easier.
Antarctic treaty enforcement and evaluation of success
-Little problem enforcing due to global governance.
-But, no fines reliant on mutual trust and slow decisions.
-Norway/UK want parts of it to be under their jurisdiction. UK even tried to assert a claim but it was rejected.
Protocol on environment protection purpose 1991/Madrid protocol
-Mining banned here.
-Not to be reviewed until 2048
Protocol on environment protection 1991 enforcement and evaluation to success
-Strictly enforced internationally.
-Could change in future if countries need oil reserves.
Describe UNEP 1972 purpose
-Founded in 1972. Governs atmospheric, marine and terrestrial systems and reports these to UN.
-UNEP personnel participate in Antarctic treaty meetings.
Describe UNEP enforcement and evaluate its success
-Heavily involved with both Antarctic and arctic management.
-Meetings on an ad hoc basis to decide on policies to pursue. Also, some countries only protect their own interests.
IWC whaling Moratorium purpose 1982. IGO
-Many whale species previously hunted to extinction eg the humpback for oil in lamps or for clothing using baleen for skirt hoops.
-Partly recovered due to an indefinite ban on commercial whale hunting.
How to enforce 1982 IWC whaling moratorium and evaluate overall success
-Shift attitudes and planetary norms.
-Norway still slaughters whales as it is part of their norm. Poorly enforced. Japan does for “scientific research”
Japan left 2019
Describe the NGO ASOC
-Doesn’t act on behalf of a country
-Coalition of over 150 environmental NGOs such as Greenpeace.
-Though, due to so many stakeholders, time consuming and compromised decisions.
-Speaks up against exploitation/talks about climate change mitigation/regulating tourism, biodiversity.
Describe scientific research here
Lots of environmental data. Research bases have damaged local environment and need to be managed due to fragile ecosystems. Eg dogs such as huskies were used for transportation and sometimes fed seals. Risked infecting the seals so have now been permanently removed.
Ice core drilling.
Another benefit of Antarctic Treaty
The Arctic Council was made - thus it has become an example for other regions
Drawback of dealing with global commons
Often only take international action at critical points. Makes the challenge much harder to manage
Who monitors fishing
CCAMLR - 25 states and the EU
Protects the Ross sea as of 2016 as a marine park
Evaluate tourism x2
Could be educational for long run sustainability
Most tourism in summer when breeding season for many vulnerable fish/krill
Do warning oceans increase or decrease phytoplankton?
Reduce for cold environments
Why more snow with climate change?
How my does it slow sea levels by per year
Warmer oceans, cloud cover from evaporation and condensation, fall as snow.
Only a tenth of a mm annually
Large 2016 ice crack name
The Halloween ice crack
Describe east and west Antarctica separately
East is larger with Halloween ice crack
West is smaller
Divided by transantarctic mountains
Essay
Evaluate the role of one or more international organisations in the governance of Antarctica.
Antarctica, the southernmost continent, is unique in its governance structure. Unlike other continents, it does not have a sovereign government, and instead, its governance is overseen by a combination of international agreements and organizations. The most influential of these is the Antarctic Treaty System (ATS), managed by various international bodies. This essay will evaluate the role of these international organizations, with a specific focus on the Antarctic Treaty and its associated bodies, in maintaining peace, scientific cooperation, environmental protection, and geopolitical stability in Antarctica.
The Antarctic Treaty System (ATS)
The primary governing framework for Antarctica is the Antarctic Treaty, which was signed in 1959 and entered into force in 1961. The treaty, along with its associated agreements, such as the Environmental Protocol, plays a crucial role in regulating activities on the continent. It has been signed by 54 countries, and the governing of Antarctica is effectively managed through these multilateral agreements, with no single country having sovereignty over the land.
The Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting (ATCM) is the key body within the ATS. This assembly meets every year to discuss the management of Antarctica, including scientific research, environmental protection, and any challenges faced by nations operating in the region. Decisions made here influence policies on tourism, waste management, and the conduct of scientific investigations. The ATCM plays a central role in facilitating international cooperation by creating a platform where all signatory nations can voice their concerns, make decisions, and negotiate on issues related to the governance of Antarctica.
In addition, the Committee for Environmental Protection (CEP) was created under the Environmental Protocol of 1991. The CEP advises the ATCM on environmental issues, particularly regarding the protection of the Antarctic environment from human activity. It establishes guidelines to mitigate the environmental impacts of scientific research, tourism, and other human activities. Its role has become increasingly important as human activity in the region increases, especially in the areas of tourism and research station development.
Analysis of the Role of the ATS and Associated Bodies
The Antarctic Treaty System has been highly successful in promoting peace and scientific cooperation. By banning military activity, nuclear tests, and the disposal of nuclear waste, the treaty ensures that Antarctica remains a zone of peace, with countries focusing on scientific research rather than territorial disputes. This unique model of international cooperation is one of the major successes of the ATS, with over 80% of the world’s nations being parties to the Treaty. The emphasis on scientific research is another key strength, as the Treaty has fostered a collaborative environment where countries share data, research findings, and logistical support.
However, the governance system does have limitations. While the Antarctic Treaty prohibits any military activity, it does not have a centralized enforcement mechanism, which can complicate compliance with regulations. In instances of illegal or unauthorized activity, there are no direct penalties or enforcement bodies that can act swiftly. The reliance on countries to police themselves can sometimes result in lapses or lack of enforcement. Additionally, the Treaty’s prohibition of territorial claims has led to ongoing disputes over resource exploitation, particularly in light of potential mineral and oil reserves in the region. The Environmental Protocol has also come under scrutiny, particularly concerning its vagueness on resource extraction, leaving room for future debates on the exploitation of these resources.
The Role of Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs)
Alongside the formal international organizations, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) such as the Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition (ASOC) play an important role in advocating for environmental protection and promoting transparency in governance. While they do not have formal governance powers, NGOs influence policy by lobbying the ATCM and raising public awareness about the potential threats to the Antarctic environment, including climate change, overfishing, and the impacts of human activity. These organizations push for stronger regulations on activities in Antarctica and hold governments accountable for their actions on the continent.
Evaluation of Effectiveness and Challenges
The effectiveness of the ATS and its associated bodies lies primarily in their ability to facilitate peaceful international cooperation, scientific research, and environmental protection. However, the system faces significant challenges in the face of growing human activity, particularly tourism and the potential for resource exploitation. While the treaty’s framework is designed to prevent conflicts, the future of Antarctic governance will likely face tensions as countries seek to access the region’s untapped resources, especially with the decline in global reserves of minerals and fossil fuels.
Furthermore, the current governance structure does not fully account for the impacts of climate change, which are already visible in the melting of Antarctic ice. As ice sheets retreat and ecosystems change, new challenges emerge regarding the protection of the continent’s fragile environment. These changes may necessitate new agreements or amendments to the existing treaties, a process that could prove to be slow and complicated due to the need for consensus among all signatories.
Conclusion
In conclusion, international organizations, particularly those within the framework of the Antarctic Treaty System, play an indispensable role in the governance of Antarctica. They have created a structure that promotes peace, scientific research, and environmental protection, making Antarctica one of the most cooperative and well-managed regions on Earth. However, as human activity intensifies and environmental challenges increase, there will likely be growing pressure to adapt the governance system. While the ATS has been remarkably effective in managing Antarctica’s unique challenges, its future success will depend on its ability to evolve and address emerging threats, particularly those related to resource extraction and climate change.
