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Glaciated landscapes Flashcards

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1
Q

UNIT 1
What is a glacier?

A

Moving body of ice

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2
Q

UNIT 1
How far do some glaciers move per day?

A

Up to 25cm per day

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3
Q

UNIT 1
Why do glaciers move?

A

Gravity forcing them down

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4
Q

UNIT 1
Why are glaciers important and how many people rely on them?

A

Drinking water, crop irrigation, tourism, recreation and hydroelectricity
1/3 of the world’s population rely on glaciers

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5
Q

UNIT 1
What is happening to many glaciers around the world?
What does this cause?

A

Many glaciers around the world are melting (negative mass balance).
This is causing sea levels to rise 2.6m in the last 60 years, causing extinction of animals, loss of resources, ecosystems and habitats

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6
Q

UNIT 1
Where are glaciers found

A

High latitude (poles) and altitude (mountainous) locations, where the temperature is regularly below 0 degrees Celsius (Cryosphere)

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7
Q

UNIT 1
Examples of accumulation (inputs) of snow.

A

Wind blown snow, Precipitation, desublimation (condensation into ice), avalanche debris.

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8
Q

UNIT 1
Examples of ablation (outputs) of snow

A

Meltwater, Calving (breakaway of ice), Rock debris, wind-blown snow, avalanche debris, solar energy, sublimation (evaporation from ice).

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9
Q

UNIT 1
Where does accumulation occur?
Where does ablation occur?
What is the line of equilibrium?

A

accumulation at head
ablation at toe
line of equilibrium is where inputs = outputs

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10
Q

UNIT 1
Describe the formation of glaciers

A

Snow falls, which contains ait, more snow falls, compacting the pre existing snow. Snow that survives one winters freezing and one summers thawing is called firn. In summer meltwater percolates into the firn, in winter it refreezes, causing it to become denser. After several years and a depth of 20m, there is very little air left and glacial ice is formed.

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11
Q

UNIT 1
What is mass balance?
Positive?
Negative?

A

UNIT 1
Mass balance is the growth or retreat of a glacier
Positive - growth
negative - retreat

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12
Q

UNIT 1
Draw a Glacier flow diagram

A

:)

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13
Q

UNIT 1
What is till?

A

Unsorted material deposited directly by glacial ice

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14
Q

UNIT 1
What is a moraine?

A

Deposited sediment from a retreating glacier

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15
Q

UNIT 1
Moraines formation

A

Till is deposited by glacier, debris dropped on top of glacier and material eroded from plucking.
Retreating glacier causes sediment to be deposited, causing a recessional moraine to form

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16
Q

UNIT 1
Glacier advance and retreat

A

Positive mass balance means glacier advances, becoming thicker and ploughs over moraines.
Negative mass balance means glacier retreats, but is still flowing forward due to gravity, causing the glacier to become thinner.

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17
Q

UNIT 1
Mass balance graph and description:

A

In winter there is lots of accumulation, in spring and autumn there is equal amounts of accumulation and ablation in summer there is more ablation then accumulation.

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18
Q

UNIT 1
What percentage of glaciers currently have a negative mass balance

A

75%

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19
Q

UNIT 1
How much of the earth’s surface is covered by glaciers?

A

10%

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20
Q

UNIT 1
How much of the world’s freshwater is stored in glaciers?

A

75%

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21
Q

UNIT 1
What is a ice period

A

permanent ice at the poles

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22
Q

UNIT 1
What is an interglacial period?

A

Periods of warm, causing glaciers to have a negative mass balance

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23
Q

UNIT 1
What is a Glacial period?

A

Period of cold, causing glaciers to have positive mass balance.

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24
Q

UNIT 1
When was the Holocene period
Interglacial or Glacial?

A

11,500 ybp to present
Interglacial

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25
Q

UNIT 1
When was the Devensian period?
Interglacial or Glacial?

A

80,000 ybp to 11,500 ybp
Glacial

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26
Q

UNIT 1
When was the Ipswichian period?
Interglacial or Glacial?

A

80,00 ybp to 100,000 ybp
Interglacial

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27
Q

UNIT 1
When was the Wolstonian period?
Interglacial or Glacial?

A

100,000 ybp to 140,000 ybp
Glacial

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28
Q

UNIT 1
When was the Hoxian period?
Interglacial or Glacial?

A

140,000 ybp to 200,000ybp
Interglacial

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29
Q

UNIT 1
Why do cycles of Interglacial or Glacial periods exist?

A

Changes in long-term cyclical change, due to changes in Earth’s orbits around to sun, leading to a variation of insolation received by the earth, caused mostly by Milankovitch cycles.

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30
Q

UNIT 1
What is the current tilt of the axis of the earth?

A

23.5 degrees

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31
Q

UNIT 1
Perihelion meaning.
Aphelion meaning.

A

Closest point to the sun
Furthest point from the sun

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32
Q

UNIT 1
UNIT 1
Winter solstice
Summer solstice
Equinox

A

Shortest day
Longest day
Equal insolation of both hemisphere

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33
Q

UNIT 1
What are Milankovitch cycles?
How much of they impact the amount of incoming insolation

A

Orbital variations.
Causing up to 25% variation

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34
Q

UNIT 1
Stretch (eccentricity) of the orbit description
Impacts
Time frame

A

Impact of orbital shape (more oval vs more circular). At most elliptical there is 23% more insolation then at furthest point. Every 100,000 years

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35
Q

UNIT 1
Axis tilt (Obliquity).
Impacts
Time frame

A

Tilt of the earth, varies between 22.1 and 24.5 degrees. Tilted towards the sun causes warmer climates, vice versa.
Over 41,000 years

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36
Q

UNIT 1
Wobble (precession)
Impacts
Time frame

A

earth wobbles in orbit due to the relationship between the sun and moon (Tidal forces). Causes variations in temperatures. Takes 25,771.5 years

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37
Q

UNIT 1
What is long term climate change caused by?

A

Milankovitch cycles

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38
Q

UNIT 1
What is responsible for glacial and interglacial periods?

A

Milankovitch cycles

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39
Q

UNIT 1
What is positive feedback in relation to glacial budget

A

Positive feedback amplifies changes in a glacial budget. Cooling leads to further cooling, warming leads to more warming

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40
Q

UNIT 1
What is surface albedo?

A

Earth’s reflectivity

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41
Q

UNIT 1
Why is it important to have high surface albedo?

A

More reflective surfaces, so more insolation is reflected back into space, causing decrease in temperature.

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42
Q

UNIT 1
What happens when there is low surface albedo?

A

Ice has melted, so there are less reflective areas, Insolation is absorbed into water, causing the temperature to increase

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43
Q

UNIT 1
How much insolation is reflected and absorbed by ice and snow (high albedo)

A

90% reflected to space
10% absorbed
(lower temperatures)

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44
Q

UNIT 1
How much insolation is absorbed/reflected with water (low albedo)

A

6% reflected
94% absorbed
(temperatures increase)

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45
Q

UNIT 1
Positive feedback relationship in with positive mass balance

A

Cooling of climate, Artic sea water freezes (ice cover increases), Darker surfaces hidden, increased albedo, decreased absorption of insolation…

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46
Q

UNIT 1
Positive feedback in relationship with negative mass balance

A

Increases in temperature, Artic sea ice melts, darker surfaces revealed, Albedo reduced, Increased absorption of solar radiation.

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47
Q

UNIT 1
Why is it hard to undo glacial melting

A

Warming leads to more warming due to positive feedback loops.

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48
Q

UNIT 1
Negative feedback in relation to glacial budget

A

Negative feedback reduces changes in a glacial budget. Warming leads to cooling

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49
Q

UNIT 1
Give an example of negative feedback in relation to glacial budget

A

Younger Dryas, due to thermohaline

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50
Q

UNIT 1
What is the thermohaline ocean circulation

A

Brings warm salty water to northwest Europe, causing warm winter conditions.

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51
Q

UNIT 1
What happens to cold water vs hot water

A

Cold water sinks
Hot water rises

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52
Q

UNIT 1
What is the Younger Dryas period

A

Towards the end of the last glacial period (Devensian) when temperatures were rising, the disruption to this ocean current in the North Atlantic led to a rapid period of cooling known as the Younger Dryas.

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53
Q

UNIT 1
When did the Younger Dryas occur?

A

13.25 thousand ybp to 11.25 thousand ybp

54
Q

UNIT 1
How long did Younger Dryas period last

A

2 thousand years

55
Q

UNIT 1
What was the drop of temperature in Greenland during the Younger Dryas?

A

-35 to -50 degrees celcius

56
Q

UNIT 1
What was the change of ice accumulation in the Younger Dryas period

A

0.25 -> 0.32

57
Q

UNIT 1
Explain how thermohaline currents caused the Younger Dryas period

A

Northern regions heated by the oceans. Ocean circulation is driven by Coldwater sinking in the North Atlantic. 12,800 years ago, freshwater made surface water less dense, keeping it from sinking. Air became colder for more then 100 years due to lack of northward transport of warm water. Northern Hemisphere has conditions like the last ice age. Rewarming occurred 11,600 years ago, within less then a decade ocean circulation was restored.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kqWIwp1beIw

58
Q

UNIT 1
Give 3 short term causes of climate change

A

Solar forcing (sunspots (increased solar outputs), Volcanic eruptions, Anthropogenic (human) factors.

59
Q

UNIT 1
What is solar forcing?

A

Energy released by sun

60
Q

UNIT 1
What is solar output linked to?

A

Sun spot activity

61
Q

UNIT 1
How often do sunspots fluctuate?

A

On an 11 year cycle

62
Q

UNIT 1
What was the little ice age caused by?

A

Low level of solar outputs

63
Q

UNIT 1
When was the little iceage?

A

1645-1715

64
Q

UNIT 1
What happened during the little ice age?

A

Sea ice expanded into Atlantic, Iceland and Greenland were impossible to ship too.
Baltic sea, rivers in the UK (like the Thames) froze over.
Permanent snow in Scotland covered Cairngorm mountains.
Glacier advanced in the Alps and threatened nearby towns

65
Q

UNIT 1
Why do volcanic eruptions impact glaciers

A

Volcanoes release sulphur dioxide and ash into stratosphere, these reflect income solar radiation, leading to a decrease in temperature.

66
Q

UNIT 1
Give three examples of Volcanoes that have impacted on climate change

A

Laki, Iceland, 1783, Europe was 3 degrees Celsius lower.
Tambora, Sumbawa Island, 1815, reduced temperatures by 0.7 degrees Celsius for 3 years
Mount Pinatubo, 1991, decreased temperatures by 0.4 degrees Celsius.

67
Q

UNIT 1
What is Anthropogenic factors of short term climate change

A

Human activity linked to combustion of fossil fuels, releasing greenhouse gasses, causing enhanced greenhouse effect.

68
Q

UNIT 1
How much has temperatures increased by due to anthropogenic factors

A

1.2 degrees Celsius since 1880

69
Q

UNIT 1
How much of the Himalayas glaciers are in retreat?

A

95%

70
Q

UNIT 1
How far were glaciers in the Himalayas retreating?

A

10-60m a year. Many small valley glaciers retreat 1km since the little ice age. Small glaciers have already dissapeared

71
Q

UNIT 1
How much higher are temperature in the Himalayas? What effect is this having?

A

+ 1.6 degrees overall. Decreasing amounts of snowfall

72
Q

UNIT 1
What percentage of glacier mass in the Himalayas are at risk?

A

1/4 of glacial mass could disappear by 2050

73
Q

UNIT 1
How far has the Chota Shigiri Glacier in the Himalayas retreated?

A

950m from 1962 to 2008

74
Q

UNIT 1
Where is the Glacier National Park USA

A

Montana

75
Q

UNIT 1
By what year will the Glacier National park be glacier free?

A

2030

76
Q

UNIT 1
How many Glaciers have disappeared in the Glacier national park since 1850?

A

In 1850 there were 150, in 2010 there was 25

77
Q

UNIT 1
Why do New Zealand have areas of glacial growth?

A

Westerly atmospheric circulation, causing increased snowfall. Causing positive mass balance

78
Q

UNIT 1
Why do areas in New Zealand have zero ice mass balance?

A

Equal amounts of loss and gain of ice

79
Q

UNIT 1
Why are some areas in New Zealand glacial retreats

A

Glacial lakes have begun to grow at snouts. Causing calving away from the glacier into icebergs. Glaciers with lakes attached have lost 10% of mass over 30 years.

80
Q

UNIT 1
What was ice extent like during the Devensian? What else did this impact upon?

A

Ice reached much further south, covering parts of the UK. Sea ice reached Iceland and Greenland. Due to this coastlines were much bigger as there were lower sea levels

81
Q

UNIT 1
Why are Glaciers found at high latitudes?

A

Axis tilt of earth means they get less sunlight, meaning snow can fall consistently and meltwater will refreeze

82
Q

UNIT 1
Why are glaciers found at high altitudes?

A

Low pressure, cool air (due to work done to rise), causing snowfall

83
Q

UNIT 2
What is the cryosphere?

A

Parts of the crust and atmosphere that are below zero degrees for a part of the year

84
Q

UNIT 2
How are icebergs formed

A

Broken of of glaciers into water via calving

85
Q

UNIT 2
What is permafrost

A

permanently frozen ground

86
Q

UNIT 2
What is the morphology of glaciers?

A

Form, shape and structure of ice

87
Q

UNIT 2
What two factors impact the morphology of a glacier?

A

Climate and topography of land

88
Q

UNIT 2
What is climate? And how does it impact a glacier’s morphology

A

Climate is contorlled by annual temperature cycle. Warmer climate causes negative mass balance vice versa.

89
Q

UNIT 2
What is topography? And how does it impact glaciers morphology?

A

Topography is the natural shape of the land. Land surface, e.g. altitude. Controls physical dimensions of the glaciers and how they can flow.

90
Q

UNIT 2
What is an unconstrained land mass?

A

morphology and flow pattern that is not fully dependent of the topography of land

91
Q

UNIT 2
What is a constrained ice mass?

A

Morphology and flow pattern that is strongly based on topography

92
Q

UNIT 2
Ice sheet:
Description, size, constrained or unconstrained?
Example

A

Topography is submerged in ice, forms gently sloping domes of ice several km thick. +50,000km2. Unconstrained. Antarctic ice sheet

93
Q

UNIT 2
Ice cap:
Description, size, constrained or unconstrained?
Example

A

Smaller version of an ice sheet. >50,000km2. Unconstrained. Vatnajökull ice sheet

94
Q

UNIT 2
Ice field:
Description, size, constrained or unconstrained?
Example

A

Ice covering upland area, does not bury topography. 10-10,000km2. Constrained. Patagonian ice fields

95
Q

UNIT 2
Valley glacier:
Description, size, constrained or unconstrained?
Example

A

Confined between valley walls, finishing in a narrow tongue, made from ice caps, sheets or cirques. 3-1500km2. Constrained, Aletsch glacier, Swiss Alps

96
Q

UNIT 2
Piedmont glacier:
Description, size, constrained or unconstrained?
Example

A

Valley Glacier that extends beyond end of a mountain into flat area, spreading out. 3-1000km2. Constrained. Malaspina, Alaska

97
Q

UNIT 2
Cirque glacier:
Description, size, constrained or unconstrained?
Example

A

Occupies a hollow on a mountain side, calves out a corrie. 0.5-0.8 km2. Constrained. Styggebrean Norway

98
Q

UNIT 2
Ice shelf/sea ice:
Description, size, constrained or unconstrained?
Example

A

Large area of floating glacier ice, many glaciers coalesce (fuse). 10-10,000km2. unconstrained. Larsen Ice shelf

99
Q

UNIT 2
What is thermal regime?

A

the temperature of the ice

100
Q

UNIT 2
What are the two types of thermal regimes, and what is the difference?

A

Cold based (polar glaciers) - Glacier is permanently frozen to ground. Average temperature is well bellow 0, surface temperature is -20 to -30. High latitudes.
Warm based (temperate glaciers) - Glacier is not frozen to bedrock. Temperature fluctuates to above melting point, causing meltwater, this is due to the pressure melting point (water melts due to high pressure, even while temperature is below 0 degrees celcius). High altitudes.

101
Q

UNIT 2
Why are glaciers able to move?

A

Glacial ice can deform

102
Q

UNIT 2
What is pressure melting?

A

Ice melts at temperature below 0 degrees, due to pressure of overlying ice.

103
Q

UNIT 2
What is the equation for pressure melting?

A

melting point falls at a rate of 1 degree Celsius for every 100kg/cm3 of pressure

104
Q

UNIT 2
In what thermal regime do glaciers melt. Why?

A

Warm based glaciers reach pressure melting point at depth. Causing meltwater.
Cold based glaciers do not melt as temperature is far from pressure melting point all thought the glacier.

105
Q

UNIT 2
What is Regelation

A

Ice melts under pressure, when pressure is relieved water refreezes

106
Q

UNIT 2
Is Basal sliding warm based or cold based?

A

Warm

107
Q

UNIT 2
What is Basal sliding? This is not a specific type of movement, all warm based glaciers do this.

A

Only occurs when there is meltwater, acting as a lubricant reducing friction, enabling movement.

108
Q

UNIT 2
What is enhanced Basal creep? Cold or warm?

A

Glacier comes into contact with an obstacle. Ice deforms around obstacle, but does NOT reach pressure melting point. Warm based only.

109
Q

UNIT 2
What is the Stoss and Lee side?

A

Stoss - up side
Lee - down side

110
Q

UNIT 2
What is Regelation slip. Cold or warm?

A

f temperature of ice is close to pressure melting point, increased pressure from the stoss side (up movement) of glacier will induce melting. Glacier is able to slip and meltwater flows around obstacle to the Lee side, pressure is reduced and meltwater refreezes - linking to regulation. Warm only.

111
Q

UNIT 2
What is internal deformation. This is not a specific type of movement, all warm and cold based glaciers do this.

A

individual grains of ice withing glacier responding to pressure, this is NOT melting. This is effected with ice thickness and slope angle.

112
Q

UNIT 2
What is intergranular flow? Warm or cold based?

A

Displacement of ice grains relative to one another. Bottom grains are stationary while top rotate clockwise, this is due to slope angle as it is reliant on gravity. A steeper slope angle causes more movement. Warm and cold based.

113
Q

UNIT 2
What is Laminar flow? Warm or cold based?

A

Layers of ice slipping over one another. Ice at the bottom has slower relative velocity then ice at top. This is due to slope angle as it is reliant of gravity. A steeper slope angle causes more movement. Warm and cold based.

114
Q

UNIT 2
What is the deformation of ice called? What is it caused by? Warm or cold?

A

Ice creep. Caused by increased ice thick and/or slope angle. Warm and cold

115
Q

UNIT 2
How does ice deformation cause ice faults, fractures and crevasses.

A

Ice is not able to deform quick enough

116
Q

UNIT 2
Explain extensional and compressing flow.

A

When slope gradient is increased, ice accelerated, causing crevasses. This is extensional flow.
When slope gradient is decreased, ice slows down, causing ice behind to catch up, leading to ice thickening, and crevasses to close. This is compressing flow.

117
Q

UNIT 2
What is subglacial bed deformation? Warm or cold based? What does this cause?

A

Glacier moves over weak, loose rock, causing sediment to deform under weight of glacier. Warm based glacier only.
In Icelandic glaciers this causes 90% of glacial movement

118
Q

UNIT 2
What thermal regime glaciers move faster?

A

Warm

119
Q

UNIT 2
What is the range of movement in a glacier per year?

A

3-300m per year

120
Q

UNIT 2
How does slope angle impact velocity?

A

Higher slope angle = more velocity
vice versa

121
Q

UNIT 2
How does thermal regime impact velocity?

A

Warm based glaciers have more velocity due to
- Water acting as lubricant
- More movement options
- Basal sliding

122
Q

UNIT 2
What are glacial surges?

A

Periods of rapid movements

123
Q

UNIT 2
How much faster can a glacier move in surge conditions?

A

Up to 1000 times faster

124
Q

UNIT 2
What are glacial surges caused by?

A

change of flow pattern of subglacial meltwater

125
Q

UNIT 2
Describe surge conditions

A

Water builds underneath glaciers. Increase of ice in accumulation zone. During winter subglacial meltwater channels are closed, increasing accumulation of ice. During summer ice accumulation is so great that subglacial meltwater channels do not open. Pressure melting point and subglacial meltwater separates basal ice from it’s bed, lubricating it and causing faster velocity. Abundant water increased pore water pressure, adding to movement, Surge occurs and glacier returns to normal flow.

126
Q

UNIT 2
What case study is used for glacial surges

A

Muldrow Glacier, 2021

127
Q

UNIT 2
When did Muldrow Glacier last surge? How far did it move?

A

1956, moving 4 miles

128
Q

UNIT 2
How far did Muldrow Glacier move? How much more is this then normal? What did this cause?

A

200ft in 4 days, 10-20m in one day, 100x faster then normal, caused massive crevasses

128
Q

UNIT 2
Where does Muldrow lie that impacts surge conditions

A

Lies on a fault line, which causes earthquakes

129
Q
A

Geography Edquadus (2 decks)

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