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Disease, Diagnostics and Therapeutics > GI Tract Dysfunction > Flashcards

GI Tract Dysfunction Flashcards

1
Q

Explain the steps in the p53 pathway (stressed cell)

A
  1. mdm2 doesn’t ubiquitinate p53
  2. so another kinase phosphorylates p53
  3. this leads to gene expression of p21
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2
Q

What are the role of monoclonal antibodies

A
  • Block growth factor signals which tell cells to divide
  • Carry cancer drugs or radiation to cancerous cells
  • Block checkpoint inhibitors
  • Mark the cancer cells, so immune cells can easily identify them
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3
Q

What type of radiation does a CT scan use

A

x ray

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4
Q

Mutations in DNA repair genes lead to what

A

A failure in repair, allowing subsequent mutations to occur

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5
Q

What is a prodrug

A

a medication or compound that, after administration, is metabolized (i.e., converted within the body) into a pharmacologically active drug.

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6
Q

What is the role of β catenin

A

cell adhesion at the adherens junction. It helps control the expression of genes and promotes the growth and proliferation, and differentiation of cells

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7
Q

What happens in G1 phase of cell cycle

A

Metabolic changes prepare the cell for division. At a certain point - the restriction point - the cell is committed to division and moves into the S phase.

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8
Q

What are the causes of IBD

A

It is unclear what the causes of IBD are, but a combination of genetics and immune system issues, where the immune system fights a pathogen, but attacks the GI tract lining too. NSAIDS and smoking are also common causes.

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9
Q

What causes type 2 diabetes

A

down-regulation of insulin receptors

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10
Q

What effects may RAS protein have

A

mitogenic functions:

  • lipid metabolism,
  • DNA synthesis,
  • cytoskeletal organization.
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11
Q

What are the steps of recombinant protein production

A
  1. the cDNA from the gene of interest is inserted into and expression vector
  2. this is cloned into a suitable expression system
  3. the best construct/expression hosts are selected
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12
Q

What process is stimulated when blood glucose levels are too low

A

glycogenolysis in the liver and gluconeogenesis

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13
Q

Where are SGLT 2 transporters found

A

Proximal Tubule of Nephron

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14
Q

What are the three stimuli for gastric acid secretion

A

gastrin
histamine
Ach

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15
Q

How do MRIs work

A

uses a powerful magnet and radio waves. The machine creates a magnetic field around the patient and pulses radio waves into the area of the body being pictured. The radio waves cause the tissues in the body to resonate. These vibrations are translated into detailed 2D images captured by a special computer program.

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16
Q

Which cells secrete insulin

A

beta cells

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17
Q

What does the second checkpoint involve

A

signals which block activation of M phase until activation cyclin -CDK1 complex

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18
Q

What cell produces somatostatin

A

D cells

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19
Q

If a cell exists the cell cycle at the first restriction point, what happens

A

It goes into an arrested stage GO

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20
Q

How is type 1 diabetes managed

A

insulin injections

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21
Q

What is the ligand for DCC

A

netrin 1

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22
Q

What are the symptoms of IBD

A
  • Pain, cramps or swelling in the tummy
  • Recurring or bloody diarrhoea
  • Weight loss
  • Extreme tiredness
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23
Q

What part(s) of the GI tract does Crohn’s disease effect

A

any part of the digestive system, from the mouth to the anus

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24
Q

What is p21

A

a CDK inhibitor which stops the cell cycle proliferating

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25
Q

Where are DNA repair genes most active in the cell cycle

A

During G2

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26
Q

Where are glut 4 transporters found

A

Skeletal Muscle
Adipose Tissue
Heart

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27
Q

What is the electromagnetic spectrum

A

A continuous range of wavelengths. The types of radiation that occur in different parts of the spectrum have different uses and dangers - depending on their wavelength and frequency.

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28
Q

What is DCC

A

Deleted in Colorectal Carcinomas (DCC)

A receptor present on cell membrane, activating the MAP kinase cascade when phosphorylated.

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29
Q

Describe how proteins are absorbed by the body

A

Proteins are absorbed through the membrane, by transporters, or digested by e.g. amino pepsidase

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30
Q

When the parietal cell is resting, where are the H/K ATPases found

A

In vesicles inside the cell

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31
Q

What is the name for the removal of a drug from the plasma

A

Clearance

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32
Q

Where are SGLT 1 transporters found

A

Enterocyte of Intestinal Epithelium (luminal side)

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33
Q

If there is a presence of binding, what are the steps of wnt signalling

A
  1. The Wnt ligand (secreted glycoprotein) binds to Frizzled
  2. Frizzled becomes dishevelled
  3. This mutates the destruction complex
  4. No phosphorylation occurs and so the β catenin is stabilised
  5. Transcription is permitted (of proliferation genes)
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34
Q

What hormone inhibits gastric acid secretion

A

Somatostatin

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35
Q

Where are glut 1 transporters found

A

Blood
Blood-Brain Barrier
Heart

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36
Q

Which cells secrete glucagon

A

alpha cells

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37
Q

Describe how fats are absorbed by the body

A
  1. lipids emulsified by bile
  2. lipases break down triglycerides into FAs and monoglycerides
  3. FAs and MGs are packaged into miceltes and absorbed by the microvilli
  4. FAs and MGs are converted back to triglycerides
  5. triglycerides aggregate with cholesterol, proteins and phospholipids to form chylomicrons
  6. chylomicrons move into a lymph capillary, which transports them to the rest of the body
38
Q

Where does ulcerative colitis effect

A

the colon

39
Q

What process is stimulated when blood glucose levels are too high

A

glycogenesis

40
Q

What is the function of gastric acid

A

to kill bacteria and aid digestions by solubilising food

41
Q

In the cell cycle, what does cyclin E and CD2 interact to do

A

Promote the G1 to S phase transition

42
Q

How would you treat IBD

A

immunosuppressants, amniosalicylates, antibiotics or biologics (antibody based treatment).

43
Q

How do oncogeneic mutations affect RAS

A

make Ras insensitive to the state of the nucleotide, so it is continually switched “on.”

44
Q

How are recombinant proteins made (simple)

A

the gene is isolated and cloned into an expression vector

45
Q

Define drug targeting

A

the ability of the drug to accumulate in the target organ or tissue selectively and quantitatively, independent of the site and methods of its administration

46
Q

Where are glut 2 transporters found

A

Liver
Pancreas
Small Intestine

47
Q

What is the purpose of the cell cycle checkpoints

A

To regulate the cell cycle, and check for mistakes

48
Q

What are glucose transporters

A

wide group of membrane proteins which facilitate the transport of glucose over a plasma membrane

49
Q

What does a drug’s plasma half life depend on

A

how quickly the drug is eliminated from the plasma

50
Q

What causes an increase in p53

A

DNA damage or other stressors

51
Q

Define bioavaliability

A

the degree and rate at which an administered drug is absorbed by the body’s circulatory system, the systemic circulation.

52
Q

When Rb is phosphorylated in the cell cycle, what happens

A

transcription factor E2F is activated, which promotes the expression of the cyclin E gene.

53
Q

What is the function of the RAS proteins

A

deliver signals from cell surface receptors

54
Q

Where are glut 5 transporters found

A

Enterocyte of Intestinal Epithelium (luminal side)

55
Q

What are the 4 classes of cyclins

A

Cyclin A
Cyclin B
Cyclin D
Cyclin E

56
Q

Where is the first restriction point of the cell cycle

A

Late G1

57
Q

How is type 2 diabetes managed

A

Diet and lifestyle changes

58
Q

What radiation do MRIs use

A

None

59
Q

How do monoclonal antibodies work

A

by recognising and finding specific proteins on cancer cells.

60
Q

What is an xray

A

uses radiation to produce images of the body. When the rays pass through the body, dense objects—such as bones—appear white on the film

61
Q

If there is an absence of binding, what are the steps of Wnt signalling

A
  1. No ligand binds to frizzled
  2. APC, Axin and GSK-3β (The β catenin destruction complex) undergo phosphorylation
  3. β catenin acts as the transcription factor
  4. This then undergoes ubiquitination
  5. This is then under goes proteasomal degradation
  6. Transcription is inhibited
62
Q

Which phase of the cell cycle does p53 prevent damaged DNA from entering

A

s Phase

63
Q

What happens in M phase of cell cycle

A

A nuclear division (mitosis) followed by a cell division (cytokinesis).

64
Q

What happens in G2 phase of cell cycle

A

Metabolic changes assemble the cytoplasmic materials necessary for mitosis and cytokinesis.

65
Q

Other than bones, what can xrays be used to look at

A

other internal structures, such as organs. In this case, the patient may be given barium sulphate or dye to make the organs stand out more clearly in the X-ray image.

66
Q

What are CT scans used for

A

takes a 360-degree image of internal organs, the spine, and vertebrae. Contrast dyes are often injected into the blood to make structures within the body more visible on the CT scan.

67
Q

What is recombinant protein

A

Proteins that can result from the expression of recombinant DNA within living cells

68
Q

Where are glut 3 transporters found

A

Brain
Neurons
Sperm

69
Q

What is p53

A

A transcription factor, which acts as a tumour suppressor by regulating G1/S & G2/M checkpoints.

P53 regulates the expression of Mdm2 and the genes involved in growth arrest, DNA repair and apoptosis

70
Q

If netrin 1 is present for DCC, what happens

A

if present acts as protooncogene

71
Q

What is the main difference between type 1 and 2 diabetes

A

Type 1 diabetes is where the body doesn’t produce sufficient insulin, whereas 2 is where the body doesn’t respond to insulin production

72
Q

Which cells in the stomach secrete gastric acid

A

Parietal cells

73
Q

What is mdm2

A

a ubiquitin ligase

74
Q

When in life does type 2 diabetes usually occur

A

adulthood

75
Q

Explain the steps of MAP Kinase cascades

A
  1. Ligand binds to the receptor tyrosine kinase
  2. RTK dimerises and auto-phosphorylates
  3. GRB2 binds to the RTK
  4. SOS binds to GRB2
  5. GRB2 binds to Ras (which has GDP bound to it)
  6. SOS causes GDP to exchange to GTP, activating Ras
  7. Ras binds to MAPKKK Raf and helps activate it
  8. Raf phosphorylates and activates MAPKK Mek
  9. Mek phosphorylates and activates MAPK Erk
  10. Erk translocates to nucleus, activates transcription factors
76
Q

Explain the steps in the p53 pathway (normal cell)

A
  1. Mdm2 ubiquitinates p53

2. this sends it for degradation

77
Q

What causes type 1 diabetes

A

destruction of the beta cells

78
Q

What do wnt proteins regulate

A

the proliferation of cells

79
Q

What happens in S phase of cell cycle

A

DNA synthesis replicates the genetic material. Each chromosome now consists of two sister chromatids.

80
Q

What effect does unbound DCC have

A

stimulates apoptosis

81
Q

What is the name for the distribution of the drug in various body tissues

A

Volume of distribution

82
Q

What do DNA repair genes code for

A

proteins whose normal function is to correct errors arising when cells duplicate their DNA prior to division

83
Q

When in life does type 1 diabetes usually occur

A

during childhood

84
Q

Where is the second restriction point in the cell cycle

A

Late G2

85
Q

Describe how CHO is absorbed by the body

A

Polysaccharides are converted to disaccharides, which when transported into the cell with Na, are broken into monosaccharides and then into the capillary of the villi.

86
Q

Where in collorectal epithelium is netrin 1 expressed

A

bottom of the villi
• Proliferation occurs at the base
• Apoptosis occurs at the tip, so the villi does not grow too large (decreasing polyp likelihood)

87
Q

What happens when the first checkpoint is passed

A

CDK4 and Cyclin D interact, and phosphorylate Rb.

88
Q

What are monoclonal antibodies

A

Antibodies that are made by identical immune cells that are all clones of a unique parent cell

89
Q

Which CDK does cyclin D bind to?

A

CDK 4

90
Q

Which CDK does cyclin E bind to?

A

CDK 2

91
Q

Which CDK does cyclin A bind to?

A

CDK 1 or 2

92
Q

Which CDK does cyclin B bind to?

A

CDK 1

Disease, Diagnostics and Therapeutics (14 decks)

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