Germany’s International Position 1924-28 Flashcards
What was the political climate like after 1919?
Germans of all classes and political allegiances agreed on one thing after 1919 - that the ToV was an unjust and dictated peace treaty, which denied Germany its rightful place among the great powers of Europe. Whichever government was in power during the years 1919-1933, the foreign policy of the Weimar Republic was always based on one clear and simple aim - to revise the terms of the ToV.
There were deep divisions on how this should be achieved. The nationalist rugby consistently argued that Germany should reject the treaty and rebuild its military strength in preparation for a time when the country could regain lost territory and become a fully independent great power once again. A more pragmatic approach, which came to be associated with Gustav Stresemann was the policy of fulfilment.
What was the policy of fulfilment?
This involved Germany cooperating with France, Great Britain, the USA and Italy on issues such as reparations payments and removing allied occupation forces from German territory. Such cooperation, it was believed, would lead to more revision of the treaty than a confrontational approach.
How did the Locarno Pact 1925 come to be?
Stresemann understood that French suspicion of Germany was the biggest obstacle in the way of securing revisions in the Treaty of Versailles and, therefore, he concentrated on finding ways to reassure France of Germany’s peaceful intentions. This policy bore fruit in the Locarno Pact of 1925.
Who attended the Locarno Pact?
In October 1925, the Western European powers met, at Germany’s suggestion, at a conference in the Swiss city of Locarno. Stresemann was anxious to restore Germany’s position International,y and avoid any hostile alliance between Britain and France, particularly as the latter began to feel threatened by Germany’s industrial recovery. France was suspicious of the move, but eventually agreed to attend, along with the USA, Britain and Italy, but not Russia. The discussions led to the Rhineland Pact and and Arbitration Treaties, usually known collectively as the Locarno Pact, although they were finally signed in London on 1 December 1925.
What was agreed under the Rhineland Pact and under the Arbitration Treaties?
Under the Rhineland Pact:
- Germany, France and Belgium promised to respect the western frontier, as drawn up at Versailles in 1919. This frontier was regarded as fixed and internationally guaranteed.
- Germany agreed to keep its troops out of the Rhineland, as demanded at Versailles.
- Britain and Italy promised to aid Germany, France and Belgium if any of these of these countries were attacked by its neighbours.
Under the Arbitration Treaties:
- Germany agreed with France, Belgium, Poland and Czechoslovakia that any dispute between them should be settled by a conciliation committee to mediate discussions.
- France signed treaties of ‘mutual guarantee’ with Poland and Czechoslovakia. These said that France would make sure Germany did not break the agreement above.
What was also agreed in the Locarno Pact?
It was also agreed that any conflicts regarding the western borders should be referred to the League of Nations. In addition, France would not be permitted to cross into Germany should there be any dispute between Germany and Poland or Czechoslovakia.
What was the reaction to the Locarno Pact?
The Locarno Pact was hailed as a major triumph in many quarters. It was the first time that Germany had recognised the western border imposed at Versailles and accepted the loss of Alsace-Lorraine to France and Eupen-Malmédy to Belgium. For the French, there was a guarantee of support from the British should there ever be another German attack, while for the Germans, it meant the 1923 occupation of the Ruhr could never be repeated. The French agreed to withdraw the forces occupying the Rhineland and, although this was initially postponed in January 1925 because of Germany’s refusal to comply with the disarmament obligations imposed at Versailles, it was achieved over the next 5 years and without Stresemann giving any assurances that Germany would disarm. The city of Cologne, for example, was evacuated by the French in 1926. However, although the Arbitration Treaties with Poland and Czechoslovakia offered some guarantees, the eastern borders were not recognised in the same way. For Germany, this left open the possibility of further revision of the eastern borders at some stage in the future. Stresemann regarded the Locarno as his greatest achievement - and he was rewarded by Germany’s acceptance into the League of Nations as a permanent member of the council in 1926.
Stresemann could take pride in the fact that he had established Germany’s position as an equal partner in diplomatic negotiations with three major western powers - Britain, France and the USA. Strategically, he had achieved a good deal with very little loss to Germany. The German nationalist right, however, attacked Stresemann for appeasing the Allies and giving too much away.
Why did the Treaty of Rapallo happen?
There were some similarities between Germany’s position and the USSR’s position in post war:
- Both countries had been defeated in the war and had suffered from punitive peace treaties.
- Both countries felt that the existence of an independent Poland, supported by French guarantees, was a threat to their security. Poland also contained large German and Russian minorities.
- Both Germany and Russia/USSR were treated as ‘outcast’ nations by the victorious powers and were not allowed to join the League of Nations.
These similarities led some in Germany to see advantages in a closer working relationship, with Russia/USSR.
What was the Treaty of Rapallo?
Among those realising the potential advantages with allying with the USSR, was Walther Rathenau who, in April 1922, had negotiated the Treaty of Rapallo with Russia under the following terms:
- Germany and Russia resumed trade and economic cooperation
- diplomatic relations between the two countries were restored
- all outstanding claims for compensation for war damage were dropped
- Germany was allowed to develop new weapons and train pilots in Russia, away from the scrutiny of allied powers.
Although the treaty did not specify cooperation between Germany and Russia against Poland, this was clearly implied in the existence of the treaty. For Germany, therefore, the Treaty of Rapallo was an important but symbolic step away from its post-war isolation. However the Allies, particularly France, were angered by this treaty, which showed Germany’s intention to get around the disarmament terms of the Treaty of Versailles and its refusal to accept its eastern frontier with Poland.
What was the Treaty of Berlin in 1926?
In April 1926, Germany and the USSR renewed their earlier treaty in the Treaty of Berlin. This added very little to the original treaty, except for the agreement that Germany would remain neutral if the USSR were to be involved in a war, as long as the USSR was not the aggressor. This treaty was signed after the Locarno Pact and showed that, despite his agreement to guarantee Germany’s western frontiers, Stresemann had not abandoned his desire to secure a revision of Germany’s eastern frontiers. In order to achieve this, a close relationship with the USSR was vital because the USSR would resist any border changes it did not agree with.
What other agreements did Germany have with other countries?
As the Treaty of Rapallo with Russia showed, Germany sought and found ways to get around the disarmament clauses. Similar arrangements with other countries allowed Germany to build submarines in Spain and tanks and artillery in Sweden.
What did this secret rearmament provide Germany with?
This secret rearmament did not provide Germany with a fully operational Air Force, or the army with unlimited supplies of modern weapons, but it did ensure that Germany did not fall behind other powers in technological developments. German fortifications along the Rhine were dismantled in accordance with the Treaty of Versailles, but new fortifications were built along the Polish frontier.
How did the army get around the size limit?
Under the Chief of the Army General von Seeckt’s command, the Reichswehr found other ways of getting round the limit on the size of the army. Most recruits to the army were enlisted for short periods, during which they would receive intensive military training. This ensured that there was a reserve of highly trained men who could be recalled to the army at short notice. The army sponsored a number of paramilitary groups, which also forced a potential military reserve force. Even when the Freikorps was disbanded after the failed Kapp Putsch, there were many unofficial paramilitary groups that had a close relationship with the army.
What was General von Seeckt’s aim?
General von Seeckt aimed to restore Germany’s military might and he worked towards a military alliance with Russia/USSR, with aimed to destroy newly independent Poland. Many of the details of his agreements with the Red Army were kept secret from the politicians to whom he was supposed to be accountable. However, politicians such as Rathenau and Stresemann were formalised in negotiating the Treaties of Rapallo (1922) and Berlin (1926), which formalised the relationship with Russia/USSR, and chose to turn a blind eye to the extent of military cooperation. Secret rearmament was a policy driven by army commanders such as von Seeckt, but was tacitly approved by the politicians.
What was the Kellog-Briand Pact in 1928?
In 1928, Germany also signed the Kellog-Briand Pact with France and the USA. Frank Kellog, the American Secretary of State, and Aristide Briand, the Foreign Minister of France, drew up an international agreement under which states would agree voluntarily to renounce the use of offensive wars to resolve disputes. Germany was one of the first states to sign, and was followed by many other countries. The Pact had symbolic importance as an international agreement to avoid war, but its lack of any enforcement mechanism limited its effectiveness.
