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Human > Geopolitics > Flashcards

Geopolitics Flashcards

1
Q

What is Geopolitics?

A
  • A number of meanings
  • Underlying emphasis on politics and its relationship with space
  • Prefixes applied
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2
Q

Why is the history of Geopolitics important?

A
  • Key thinkers created different ideas which constructed the subject and knowledges
  • Shaped methodologies
  • Discourse and power (space and power are related)
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3
Q

How can classical geopolitics be broadly defined?

A
  • The role of space in intl relations

- Intended to further colonial expansion

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4
Q

Was classical geopolitics an inclusive field?

A

No. Restricted to upper-class men

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5
Q

Who was the earliest key thinker in classical geopolitics?

A

Friedrich Ratzel

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6
Q

What did Friedrich Ratzel do?

A
  • Tried to make geography more scientific (positivist)

- Inspired by Darwinism in “Politishe Geographie”

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7
Q

What is social Darwinism?

A
  • An idea adopted in the late 19th century applying Darwin’s theory of natural selection to nations
  • Nations with the most adaptive potential succeed
  • Environmental determinism - RESOURCES important
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8
Q

How does neo-Lamarkism differ from social Darwinism?

A
  • Social Dawinism = imperative/inevitable adaptations or conflic
  • Neo-Lamarkism = choice

Technically neo-Lamarkism is what is meant by social Darwinism in a geopolitical context

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9
Q

What was a major problem (besides racism) with Ratzel’s social Darwinism (and classical geopolitics in general)?

A

Saw conflict as an inevitability

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10
Q

Who came up with the term ‘geopolitics’?

A

Rudolph Kjellen

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11
Q

What is a seminal paper on environmental determinism?

A

“Influences of geographic environment” by Ellen Churchill Semple

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12
Q

What are 3 obvious counter-arguments to environmental determinism?

A

1) The anthropocene - ‘humans’ are now creating and altering the environment
2) Survivorship bias of European success - highly realist perspective
3) Subsistence is a social relation. A choice, not a force of nature

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13
Q

Who saw geopolitics as a strategic enterprise?

A
  • Sir Halford Mackinder

- Isiah Bowman

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14
Q

What did Bowman focus on?

A
  • Relationship between commerce and power
  • Need for “economic living space”
  • Involved in Treaty of Versailles
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15
Q

Who was critical of classical geopolitics at the time?

A

Petr Kropotkin

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16
Q

When did Kropotkin publish ‘Mutual Aid’?

A

1914

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17
Q

What did Kropotkin theorise?

A
  • Social relations, not environment, are the reasons for poverty (Capitalism and imperialism)
  • Cooperation, not competition through expansion (symbiosis, continuing the biology analogy)

See Keanes 2009 critics of Mackinder

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18
Q

Who extended Ratzel’s ideas for (indirectly) Nazi benefit?

A
  • Hawshofer
  • Space is a necessity for survival
  • Extended by Bowman
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19
Q

What was the ‘heartland’ thesis?

A

A fallacious concept theorised by Mackinder that control of the ‘heartland’ would result in world dominance (because of lots of resources and space)

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20
Q

What is the context behind Mackinder’s interest in geopolitics?

A
  • Interest in empire
  • Concern surrounding rise of Germany as industrial naval power. Anxiety surrounding Russia
  • Studied at peak of British Imperialism
  • Studied/learned from previous empires
  • Utopian view of empires
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21
Q

What slowed the speed of British imperialism at the start of the 20th century?

A
  • USA rivalry
  • More protectionism from USA
  • President Mackinley imposed tariffs on UK goods
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22
Q

What did Joseph Chamberlain do?

A
  • Market protection for empire during the last phase of imperialism
  • More of a democratic colonial structure
  • A vision of imperial dominance endorsed by all political parties
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23
Q

What was Mackinder’s “Physical vs Political Geography” (1887-90) about?

A
  • Political organisation was paramount for coping with the environment
  • Tech to overcome environmental barriers
  • Darwinist approach (envi determinism)
  • Physical geog study for exploitation
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24
Q

What was Mackinder’s “Britain and the British Seas” (1902) about?

A
  • Explained how and why Britain became an imperial power
  • Coal main citation, connotations of “it was meant to be” narrative
  • Concept of “geographical inertia” if geography is not utilised
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25
Q

What was Mackinder’s “Geographical Pivot of History” (1904) about?

A

Phases of history are due to domination of ‘pivot areas’ e.g. the Eurasian heartland

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26
Q

Who coined the term “Lebensraum” (AKA ‘living space’)?

A

Karl Haushofer - inspired Nazi Germany

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27
Q

Who has recently justified Mackinder’s proposals?

A

Gray (2004) “In defence of the heartland” - it was not about what WILL be, but rather what COULD be

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28
Q

What is positivism?

A

A philosophical approach to methods that focusses on detaching the viewer from the world. Objectively studies the world

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29
Q

What geographical models assume humans are rational agents?

A
  • Quantitative models
  • Focusses on ‘profit maximisation’
  • V. neoliberal
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30
Q

What did Gerard Toal focus on initially?

A
  • Representation and how danger is projected onto space in El Salvador 1980s conflict
  • Wider repercussions of US involvement also analysed, especially links to political motives and cold war
  • Start of CRITICAL geopolitics
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31
Q

What does critical geopolitics do?

A

Distances politics directly away from the state and place, deconstructs power and knowledges

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32
Q

What are 3 key texts which provided the conceptual basis for critical geopolitics?

A

1) Foucault - Discipline and Punish
2) Said - Orientalism (1978)
3) Escobar - Encountering development (1995)

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33
Q

What was the focus of Foucault’s ‘Discipline and Punish’?

A
  • Less punishment and more social control/discipline
  • “Regulation of conduct”
  • Discourse to make certain knowledges common sense
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34
Q

What was the focus of Said’s ‘Orientalism’?

A
  • Orient discourse from the west viewed as backward
  • Representations of places in the ‘orient’
  • Material consequences of (re)production of representations
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35
Q

What was the focus of Escobar’s ‘Encountering Development’?

A
  • Intl development as a discourse
  • “Developed” vs “underdeveloped” post-WW2
  • End point of development normalised (although imagined, a wave - analogy from Crutcher et al 2009)
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36
Q

Why is discourse important in for geostrategy?

A

Forms material actions with rules and knowledge shaped over time, engraved in space. Discourse and language are the building blocks of reality

See Toal and Agnew 1992

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37
Q

Who said that critical geopolitics is “geopolitics reborn”?

A 
Merje Kuus (2007)
- Geopolitics no longer about the causes, but how it moulds political debates (wider repercussions etc), making policies appear "reasonable and feasible"
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38
Q

What are 3 sites of geopolitical discourse?

A

1) Formal: adacemia + think tanks
2) Practical: Politicians
3) Popular: Lay people, films, art

Nayak and Jeffrey, 2011

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39
Q

What is a good example of a complicated and far-reaching (spatially and temporally) geological discourse?

A

War on Terror post-9/11

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40
Q

What is a good critique/alternative interpretation of the War on Terror?

A

Dalby 2003

  • Colonial legacies of west (USA too and esp.)
  • Escaped condemnation of war crimes
  • Historical context of US arms trade with Iraq in 1980s; provided WMDs
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41
Q

What is “the colonial present” (Gregory, 2004) about?

A

The discursive imaginations created by US foreign policy post-9/11 and worldwide rifts

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42
Q

How do geopolitical discourses and ideologies interact?

A

Discourses and ideologies combine to create alliances

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43
Q

When did the “one belt, one road” initiative start?

A

2013 by Chinese government

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44
Q

What is the “one belt, one road” initiative?

A
  • Created by China in 2013
  • An alternative to IMF and WB (US led)
  • Builds on existing ideologies of the Chinese communist party
  • CONFUSIAN geopolitical ideologies - similar to Kropotkin’s ideas
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45
Q

What is ironic about the US criticism of the “one belt, one road” initiative?

A
  • Claims that it is colonialism when Europe and US have been implementing imperial and economically extractive policies since WW2
  • US narrative is very similar to Mackinder’s views
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46
Q

What is the main criticism of the “one belt, one road” initiative?

A

It “[paves a] pathway for china dominating world trade” (Vox? -check). A trojan horse…

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47
Q

Who has likened the “one belt, one road” initiative to Mackinder’s heartland thesis? What did they say?

A

Munson, 2013

“He who controls the Indo-Pacific [region] controls the future” (world hegenomy and control)

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48
Q

What is interesting about studying geopolitical discourses and narratives?

A

Makes you ask; are geopolitical visions only meaningful when materially acted? (and the answer would be no)

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49
Q

Is all of contemporary geopolitics about discourse?

A

Nope

Politics can be about action and practicing (“deeds, not words”)

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50
Q

Who commented on the exclusion of women from geographical debates and academia?

A

Gillian Rose

  • Researcher and object of research separated
  • Objectivity (in quantitative revolution) masculinist
51
Q

Who commented on the inherent bias involved in (scientific) research?

A

Donna Haraway (1988) “Situated Knowledges”

  • Labs are social spaces
  • Embodied objectivity needed for production of ideas
  • Knowledge is situated
52
Q

What is the idea behind positionality?

A

To raise awareness of bias and embodiment in research, encouraging researchers to acknowledge their position and biases

53
Q

Broadly speaking, what does feminist geopolitics study?

A
  • Security at multiple scales
  • Alternative accounts
  • Private/subordinate perspectives of geopolitical events
  • Knowledge production politics

(See Koopman 2011)

54
Q

What is anti-geopolitics?

A

A branch of feminist geopolitics that studies non-prevailing geopolitical discourse (don’t be mislead by the ‘anti-‘ part!).

Focuses on resistance to geopolitical orthodoxy

55
Q

What is a major issue of critical geopolitics?

A
  • Seen as unethical
  • Gerard Toal criticised for ‘just war’ thesis…
  • Alternative approaches turn to the politics of peace
56
Q

What is alter-geopolitics about?

A

Grassroots struggles to build solidarity within groups

see Koopman 2011

57
Q

What is an interesting source for corporeal geopolitics?

A

Sara Smith 2012

How reproduction and health campaigns reflect geopolitical agendas and territorial claims

58
Q

What is a good example of discourse to cover up hidden geopolitical agenadas?

A 
Shock Doctrine (Klein, 2007)
- Neoliberalism covered up by focussing on other issues and using socialist platforms to invoke neoliberal reforms (as in Polish independence 1980s...)
59
Q

Give a criticism of feminist geopolitics

A

The discipline is loosing an interest in geostrategy (Dalby 2010)

Also is there a conceptual limit to geopolitics? Just states and spaces? More overlap with cultural geography?

60
Q

Who theorised ‘everywhere wars’?

A

Gregory - ‘everywhere wars’ post-war on terror; e.g. Salisbury poisonings

61
Q

What is the problem with increased reliance on agencies instead of government defence departments?

A
  • Not scrutinised

- Conflicts of interest (e.g. Klein 2007 and US defence subsidiaries profiting out of conflict)

62
Q

Who theorised ‘predator empire’? What is it about?

A

Shaw

  • Increasing use of cyber technologies in conflicts
  • Also evidenced in recent defence review for UK
63
Q

In what 3 ways has COVID-19 unearthed elements from classical geopolitics in popular discourse?

A
  • US closing borders at the start (based on the false assumption that it could be contained)
  • Canada securitisation of border - a smokescreen to cover up emigration prevention
  • Wartime solidarity narratives by Boris Johnson
64
Q

What does ‘Pentagon’s new map’ show? When was it published?

A
  • Essentially shows a neo-classical pivot area in the middle east (Oil!), very similar to heartland of Mackinder and Spykman (grand strategy and security)
  • Bernet 2004
65
Q

What examples are there of visual materials entangled in geopolitical issues?

A
  • Film and photographs of conflicts (Vietnam news footage)
  • Reconnaissance photos
  • Fictional films depicting heroism in wars
  • CAMPBELL 2007 visual economies facilitating profits from conflicts
66
Q

What inroads are there regarding visual materials and geopolitics/geog in general?

A

The impact on audience (DITTIMER AND GRAY 2010 - FIND OTHER EXAMPLES!)

67
Q

Who coined the term “Subaltern geopolitics”?

A

Joanne Sharpe in “geopolitics from the margins”

68
Q

What is the premise of subaltern geopolitics?

A
  • Studies geopolitical issues beyond dominant western-centric narratives
  • How marginalised states/groups exert power
  • Questions the dominant narratives
  • Also resistance to development
  • Growing movements… No longer “the west and the rest”. “The rest” is fighting back

Read about this

69
Q

How has the EU responded to Belarus’ ‘maverick’ tendencies?

A

“Modernisation of Belarus” program (EU 2012)

70
Q

When were the human chains adopted in Belarus 2020 previously used? Why is this significant?

A
  • Used in Baltic states during 1980s

- A method of ending soviet oppression, so same could be said of Belarus and government/Russian dependence

71
Q

What is interesting about the recent uprisings in Belarus?

A
  • Protests in public space and human chains (historical context with corporeal dimensions)
  • Belarus between the “devil and deep blue sea” (EU and Russia)
  • Ukraine uprising conditioning western response/fears
  • Changing notions of security… police and government no longer provide safety - applications of alter-geopolitics (Koopman 2011)
72
Q

Why could the western repsonse to Belarus uprising be significant?

A

A solution could be seen as the final victory over (pseudo-) Leninism in post-socialist Belarus

73
Q

Where has the Belarus uprising spread internationally?

A

King’s Parade banner opposite Great St Mary’s church in Cambridge Nov. 2020

74
Q

Why does Belarus have an uneasy relationship with Russia?

A
  • Reliant on Russia for fuel, energy and loans (at a cost!)
  • Weary of merging states with Russia and its allies

(SESTANOVICH 2020)

75
Q

In what ways does the geopolitical strategy of contemporary Russia reflect Mackinder’s views?

A
  • Russia (Putin esp.) views itself as a modern-day Byzantine Empire with a duty to protect Russian SPEAKERS, not citizens
  • Similar to Mackinder’s philosophy of reflecting upon past empires to build better empires

(Williams and Korosteleva 2014)

76
Q

How could the heartland thesis be applied to Belarus and ‘new cold war’?

A
  • No longer about the need for land and resources (as in Mackinder’s case)
  • More about ideologies, languages and identities (all differentially distributed over space)
77
Q

Why is Russia in a difficult position in terms of intervention with the Belarus tensions?

A
  • Elite in Russia fearful of Belarusian and Siberian protests escalating and overflowing into Moscow
  • Russia could intervein out of defence
  • Intervention could jeopardise integrity of Russian state internally

(SESTANOVICH 2020)

78
Q

Why are corporeal geographies particularly important regarding the Belarus protests?

A

Injuries sustained by protesters could propagate protester’s anger towards Belarusian state into the future

79
Q

What are the 2 basic methods of the shock doctrine (Klein, 2007)?

A
  1. Disaster capitalism
  2. Shock and awe (eliminate left-wing opposition)
  • Both can combine
80
Q

What is disaster capitalism?

A

A natural (hurricane/tsunami) or man-made (war) disaster that forces governments to undertake neoliberal policies to recover, even if it contradicts prevailing political orthodoxy

Sri Lanka and Katrina (outlined in Klein 2007)

81
Q

What is shock and awe?

A

A method of forcefully (or economically?) eradicating left-wing opposition. Capitalism seen as humane compared to communism

Examples seen in S. American 1970s and 1980s; UK war against trade unions in 1980s (outlined in Klein 2007)

82
Q

How can disaster capitalism and shock + awe combine?

A
  • Shock and awe to create an socioeconomic disaster ensuring that new neoliberal policies can be implemented and eradication of opposition

Examples:

  • Occupation of Iraq destroying people and the economy
  • S. Africa post-apartheid (economic disaster utilised, caused by shock and awe)
  • Russia and economic shock and awe crating a financial disaster
83
Q

How has the shock doctrine changed notions of security?

A
  • Security privatised (ironic considering Friedman supported state military) : where you live determines security WITHIN the state, just like social security in neoliberal USA
  • Gated communities creating “green and red zones” in the US
  • Hostility increased in a neoliberal world (basically extension of “being wary of each other” narrative) - a return of classical geopolitics. Conflict seen as inevitable and peace unattainable

(Klein 2007)

84
Q

What does anti-geopolitics do, according to Koopman (2011)?

A
  • Resists hegemonic, conventional geopolitics that looks at power, discourse and knowledge
  • Grassroots geopolitics beyond academia
  • Looks at security within small groups (relevance to protests and neoliberalism)

(Koopman, 2011)

85
Q

How can the study of groups as sites of security (e.g. Koopman 2011) be extended?

A

A group as a collection and association of bodies, part of a larger cellular organism

86
Q

What is Koopman’s (2011) informal ‘order’ of geopolitical study?

A

1) Geopolitics (traditional and critical)
2) Anti-geopolitics
3) Feminist geopolitics (inc subaltern-)
4) Alter-geopolitics

Koopman, 2011 - uses a game of chess as a metaphor

87
Q

How does the chess game metaphor (Koopman 2011) apply to traditional/hegemonic geopolitics?

A
  • What happens on a chess board - the players moves
  • A realist approach, descriptive
  • Underpinned by imperial aspirations
88
Q

How does Koopman (2011) view geopolitics?

A

A peace-making process, currently too focussed on conflicts

89
Q

How does the chess game metaphor (Koopman 2011) apply to CRITICAL geopolitics?

A
  • Why moves are made on chess boards, what is the rationale, based on power, discourse and knowledge
  • See practical geopolitics (Tual 2006)
  • NOT why great game occurred or the effects on the board itself (i.e. lay people)
  • Authors disembodied from work

Koopman 2011

90
Q

How does the chess game metaphor (Koopman 2011) apply to ANTI-geopolitics?

A
  • The pieces moving themselves against the actions of the players (higher authority and power). Pawns protesting moves from the “big players”
  • Resistance of people to hegemonic geopolitics, from the grassroots
  • Resistance is both material (practiced/corporeal) and discursive.
  • Very broad, taking on board many different aspects of resistance and views of geopolitics

Koopman 2011

91
Q

How does the chess game metaphor (Koopman 2011) apply to FEMINIST geopolitics?

A
  • Feminist geopolitics is more than resistance
  • The different forms of resistance and shapes of the chess game
  • A form of anti-geopolitics, a positive approach to the subject
  • Deconstructs grand narratives and looks at them differently, combining global and local. The everyday and intl too - how these shape and destroy each other

Koopman 2011

92
Q

How are bodies involved in (feminist) geopolitics?

A

Dower + sharp (2001) - bodies as a place of performance, not so much just discursive manuscripts (meaning to affect)

93
Q

How does the chess game metaphor (Koopman 2011) apply to ALTER-geopolitics?

A
  • The counters rewriting the game; the colour of the board(/map) and who/what moves where
  • Deconstructs powerful narratives and creates alternatives
  • Seen in new forms of security shaped by marginalised groups - perhaps also Belarus protests - – Koopman interested in the performance aspects of bodies
  • Means different things to different people

Koopman 2011

94
Q

What does “progressive geopolitics” (Kearns, 2008, 2009) study?

A
  • Looks at the dominated instead of the dominant (hegemonic geopolitics in Koopman’s view)
  • Peace opposes domination: all stakeholders are content with the outcome

Kearns 2008 + 2009, linked to Koopman’s (2011) alter geopolitics

95
Q

What are the two aspects of protests?

A

1) Proclaiming anger or demanding change etc in mass numbers

2) Collectivist assemblage as a form of security (Koopman 2011 view)

96
Q

What is the premise of ‘Situated knowledges’ (Haraway, 1988)

A
  • Knowledge based positionality
  • Inherent bias in science (or academia at large)
  • “God trick” to see things from above
  • Situated knowledges connect subject and object as a form of “feminist objectivity”

Haraway 1988 - read again

97
Q

What is RELATIVISM?

A

A philosophical world-view that sees objectivity as relative to the personal perspective and positionality

98
Q

What is an interesting point made by Haraway (1988) in ‘Situated knowledges’?

A

To study requires power, and is unattainable for a subjugated person or thing. Travelling and materials are costly

Epistemological boundaries

99
Q

How are objects and discoveries viewed in Haraway 1988?

A
  • Objects are seen to be ‘created’ in discoveries, despite existing (materially or abstractly/theoretically)
  • Discoverers receive credit, becoming the owner of the object (e.g. “Father of nuclear physics”)
  • The world is in fact an active subject, not a resource to be owned
100
Q

How is Haraway 1998 related to geopolitics?

A
  • Relevant to geopolitics because of the way we write about conflict, sometimes involving the observer, from a position outside and above the reality
  • We study geopolitics from a disconnected perspective, not an embodied, active subject part, not separate
101
Q

What are map-territory relations?

A
  • Map an abstraction of realty, just represents it
  • A real abstraction (?)
  • “all models are wrong but some are useful”
  • Links to hyperrealities
102
Q

How can Baudrillard’s Hyperrealities be applied to contemporary geopolitics?

A
  • Drone warfare, detaching bodies from weapons

- “Media-scapes” in computer game warfare ‘it’s just a game - it’s not real!’

103
Q

What is a good paper discussing the flaws of environmental determinism (also useful for cultural geo!)?

A

Peet 1985

104
Q

What was the problem with Ratzel’s Lebensraum?

A

A Malthusian approach based on biogeography. Highly reductionist approach (Peet 1985)

Links to Bookchin 1995 and the history of geo security behind resurgence of Malthusian thought

105
Q

Why were Semple’s ideas adopted in the colonisation of America in the 19th century?

A
  • Manifest destiny and religious grounds for colonisation of Indian territories in western USA were wearing off
  • Semple’s ideas (social Darwinism) made Native Americans seem inferior to white colonisers

(Peet 1985)

106
Q

How does a Marxian framework refute environmental determinism?

A
  • Relation with environment is a social-ecological relationship
  • Bodies extract materials
  • Work thought through in advance before it is performed. Humans control their existence, not the environment

Good links to Capitalocene

Peet 1985

107
Q

Who has written about drone warfare?

A

Shaw 2013, also hyperrealities by Baudrillard

108
Q

How has technology superseeded bodies as a security strategy?

A

Drones are now used for reasons surrounding national security by the US Government (Shaw 2013)

109
Q

Why is drone warfare significant?

A
  • Conflicts from afar can be fought on home soil
  • Hyperreality of killing people without grasping the weapon directly
  • Inaccuracy with targeting the correct victims/prey
  • Empire of US military bases. Drones can go anywhere
  • Psychological effects on civilians

(Shaw 2013)

110
Q

Why is drone warfare inhumane?

A
  • Innocent civilians can be executed without consultation if they fulfil suspicious behavioural patterns and geographies (which correspond to an algorithm)
  • “patterns of life … are coded, catalogued, and eliminated”
  • Risk determines who gets killed, not immediate threats
    (Shaw 2013)
111
Q

When did drone attacks become more common?

A
  • 2010, after endorsement by Obama Administration
  • 2004-07 nine drone strikes in Pakistan.
  • 2008 and 2012 >300
    (Shaw 2013)
112
Q

What does being a sovereign (Foucault) mean?

A
  • Decide who lives and who dies (killed)
  • Powerful only when it is the latter
  • Drone attacks a form of biopolitics (biogeopolitics?)

(Foucault, Shaw 2013) - CHECK

113
Q

How could threats/risks (unknown unknowns) manifest themselves epidemeologically?

A

Possible causes eradicated to prevent the spread of disease. Shaw (2013) used this as a metaphor, but COVID passports have the potential to do the same….

114
Q

What do alternatives to critical geopolitics offer?

A

Something less critical! Alternative visions and approaches (Sharp 2011)

115
Q

What is a good subaltern geopolitics source?

A

Sharp 2011 - subaltern geopolitics is about viewing from the margins

116
Q

What are “shatter zones”?

A

Areas where future geopolitical issues could unfold (Kaplan, 2009)

117
Q

How does neoclassical geographical determinism relate to the Capitalocene?

A

Resource scarcity is determined by socio-ecological relations, however geography is a limiting factor that restricts the extent to which resources are exploited

(Kaplan 2009)

118
Q

How can feminist geopolitics link to cultural geography (specifically representations)?

A

Visual imagery of conflicts, often overlooked (Campbell 2007)

119
Q

What are the key points from Campbell 2007 “Geopolitics and visuality”?

A
  • The visual economy of geopolitical crises
  • Space alienation as distant conflicts are projected onto TV screens (Vietnam)
  • Images are sites of static performances from everyday lives, telling a story
  • Focusses on Darfur 2003-05 conflict
  • Image composition and subject important
  • Audience (touched on)

Campbell 2007

120
Q

What was missed in the visual representation of the Darfur 2003-05 conflict?

A
  • Observer and Guardian newspapers had a fraction of articles on the subject with photos
  • Focus on women and child refugees
  • No injuries - the images only showed part of the story
  • Newspaper visuals different to NGO visuals

Campbell 2007

121
Q

How has COVID-19 in the US reignited outdated geopolitical narratives?

A
  • Militarised response
  • “Othering discourse” by trump
  • Pandemic became a political weapon in the “new cold war” against china
  • Likened to a war

(Diaz and Mountz 2020)

122
Q

How has COVID-19 changed geopolitics?

A
  • Emphasis of national defence changed from territory to people and property
  • New conceptualisations of security by the lay public
  • Racial insecurities (those in certain necessary industries often black - good links to econ geo)

(Diaz and Mountz 2020)

123
Q

How have BLM protests changed geopolitics?

A
  • Insecurity for protesters after armed police retaliated on several occasions, ironically harming the people they are trained to protect
  • “Once again, US borders shifted inward, making people within its borders its own enemies”

(Diaz and Mountz 2020)

Human (6 decks)

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