Geography Flashcards
Geography
The study of the earth, including:
- physical characteristics
- man made borders
- distribution of life and how different forms of life interact
Also focuses on the origins of the dart and the history of different human populations
Major Elements of Geography
- locations
- regional characteristics
- spatial relations
- natural and manmade forces that change the dart
Divisions of Geographical Study
Regional, Topical, Physical, and Human
Physical Geography
Study of the physical characteristics of the earth like the climate, land, and water. How they relate to each other, how they were formed and develop, and how they affect human populations and cultures.
Cultural Geography
How aspects of physical geography - location, climate, and other factors, influence cultures. And how different cultures interact with their environment.
Topical Geography
Study of a single feature of the earth or one human activity that occurs world - wide
Regional Geography
Study of the specific characteristics of individual regions
Human Geography
Study of how human activity affects the environment. Study of political, historical, social, and cultural activities.
Tools used in Geography
mapping, field studies, statistics, interviews, mathematics, and various scientific instruments.
Eratosthenes
Ancient Greece. Mathematically calculated the circumference of the earth.
Strabo
Wrote a description of the ancient world called Geographica (17 volumes).
Ptolemy
Astronomer, experienced mapmaker - contributed to overall knowledge of the earth’s geography.
Study of Human Population
Distribution of populations, industrial areas, transportation, and other important elements of a society.
Cartographers
Mapmakers. Try to minimize the distortion that occurs when transcribing features of the world (round) onto a map (flat) - using projection (3 types).
Cylindrical Projection
Created by wrapping a globe with a cylindrical piece of paper, then using a light to project the globe onto the paper. Creates distortion at the outer edges
Conical Projection
Paper shaped like a code, contacts the globe only at the base of the cone. Useful for middle latitudes.
Flat - Plane Projection
Gnomonic Projection. Projected onto a flat piece of paper than only touches the globe at a single point. This projection makes it possible to map the shortest route (Great Circle Route) between 2 points as a straight line.
Winkel Tripel Projection
Most commonly used for world maps, accepted by the National Geographic Society in 1998 as a standard. Balances size and shape, greatly reducing distortion.
Robinson Projection
East and West sections are less distorted, but continental shapes are somewhat inaccurate
Good’s Interrupted Equal - Area Projection
Sizes and shapes of continents are accurate, but the distances are not. Represents a globe that has been cut so that it lies flat.
Mercator Projection
High distortion, especially far from the equator. A cylindrical projection commonly used by seafarers.
5 Major Elements of a Map
Title Legend Grid Directions Scale
Map Title
basic info about the map, such as the area represented
Map Legend
Also called the key. Explains what the symbols used on the map represent.
Map Grid
Latitude and longitude marks
Map Directions
A compass rose or other symbol used to show cardinal directions
Map Scale
Shows the relation between distance on the map and distance in real life
Equal Area Map
Designed so the proportional size of different areas are accurate. Lines will shift to minimize distortion that is far from the equator
Conformal Map
Represents the correct shape of geographical areas, with less concern for proportional size.
Consistent Scale Map
The same scale is used throughout the entire map. Usually used for maps of smaller areas. Maps of large areas like the globe will usually use more than one scale
Thematic Map
Constructed to show specific information about a theme.
Examples: how votes are distributed in an election, population distribution, climatic features.
Relief Map
Constructed to show different elevations across an area, using different colors, contour lines -lines that connect points of the same elevation, or different textures. They can also show the ruggedness (mountains) or smoothness (deserts) of an area.
Mountains
2,000 + feet above sea level. Steep and rugged, usually occur in chains or ranges. 6/7 contents continents on earth have mountain ranges.
Hills
500 - 2,000 feet, more rounded. Found everywhere.
Plains
Large, flat, fertile areas. Crops grown on plains feed most of the earth’s population
Valleys
lie between hills and mountains. Features can vary depending on where they’re located - range from habitable to inhospitable.
Plateaus
Elevated but flat on top. Some are very dry because surrounding mountains prevent them from getting moisture. Example: Kenya Plateau
Deserts
Receive less than 10 inches of rain per year. Usually large areas. Example: Sahara Desert, Australian Outback
Deltas
Where a river empties into a lake, river, or another river. Made up of sediment carried by the river, very fertile.
Mesa
Flat, steep - sided hills or mountains. Sometimes used to refer to plateaus.
Basin
Areas of low elevation where rivers drain - surround the entire river.
Foothills
Transition area between plains and mountains - usually a series of hills that gradually increase in size
Marshes and Swamps
Lowlands that are very wet and covered in vegetation like reeds and rushes.
Oceans
Largest bodies of water on Earth - cover 2/3 of the earth’s surface. Salt water. Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, and Arctic.
Seas
Salt water, smaller than oceans, and surrounded by land. Examples: Mediterranean, Caribbean, and Caspian.
Lakes
Freshwater, found inland. 60% of all lakes are in Canada
Rivers
Moving bodies of water, flowing from high to low elevation. Usually start as rivulets or streams, and grow until they empty into a sea or ocean
Canals
Manmade waterways that connect two large bodies of water. Examples: Panama or Suez.
Communities
Groups of who people settle together tend to gather where there are certain conditions:
- Easy access to resources
- Ability to transport raw materials and goods
- Room to house a work force
Also tend to form groups with others who are similar to them. May share common values, language, religion, or culture.
Cities
Over half the world’s population lives in cities - even more in developed areas, and cities continue to grow worldwide.
Often surrounded by a metropolitan area made up of urban and suburban sections. Cities must maintain communication with rural areas to obtain food and other resources that cannot be produced in the city.
Megalopolis
When multiple cities merge together to form one huge city.
Cities Around the World
Cities develop differently in different areas of the world
North America - cities tend to cover more area, and wealthiest people live in suburban areas
Europe - tend to have better transportation systems
Latin America - wealthiest people live in cities
Weather vs. Climate
Weather - daily conditions
Climate - aggregates information about daily and seasonal weather conditions over a long period of time. Average temperatures and precipitation, and growing seasons.
How are climates classified?
Climates are classified by latitude
Low Latitude Climates
rainforest, savannas, deserts
Middle Latitude Climates
mediterranean, humid - subtropical, humid - continental, marine, steppe/praire, desert
High Latitude Climates
Tundra and taigas
Rainforest Climate
Near the equator, high temp and humidity, high rainfall
Savanna Climate
Found on either side of rainforest regions, grasslands with dry winters and wet summers
Desert Climate
Hot, dry, sparse rainfall (<10 inches/year), high temp fluctuations. Lie beyond savanna climate or near steppe climates but with less rain
Mediterranean Climate
30 - 40 degrees, on Western coasts. Year long growing season, hot and dry summers, mild winters, sparse rain in winter
Humid - Subtropical Climate
Southeastern coastal areas. Winds blow over warm ocean currents - long summers, mild winters, and long growing season. Of all climates, this one supports the largest portion of the population
Marine Climate
Near water or on islands. Ocean winds make them mild and rainy. Summers are cooler than humid - subtropical environments. Mild winters.
Humid - Continental Climate
Four seasons - large portion of the US. Productive farmlands. Cold winters, hot humid summers.
Steppe Climate
Praire climate, far inland on large continents. Hot summers, cold winters, less rainfall than continental climates.
Tundra Climate
Marshy plain. Long, cold winters with little snowfall. Short, wet, marshy summers.Can’t grow crops, but plants and animals can live there.
Taiga Climate
South of tundra regions, large forests, swamps, and marshes. Large mineral deposits and furry animals. Colder winters and hotter summers than the tundra. Short growing season.
Vertical Climate
Exists in high mountain ranges - elevation creates varying climates and human habitation.
Factors that Affect Climate
- latitude: regions closest to equator and poles experience less seasonal change
- Ocean currents and wind patterns can make a climate more temperate
- Mountains can affect precipitation
- Established climate patterns can shift over time, human activity has also led to climate change
Human Systems
Settlements and large - scale habitations cause temporary and permanent changes in the landscape.
Study - how they distribute and trade goods, wars, migrations and forced relocations, spread of ideas/language/goods/practices. Conflicts and alliances around natural resources.
North America (US and Canada)
US and Canada. Both were under British rule - US broke from it violently while Canada gained independence through diplomatic means.
Agriculture, service industries and technology are important industries. Generally high standard of living and level of development. Participates in global trade.
Physical Geography: Shared mountain ranges in East and West.
Fertile plains in the center, some shared lakes and waterways. Areas shaped by glaciers - deposited highly fertile soil.
Experience continental, tropical, and arctic climates in different areas.
Human intervention has greatly influenced agricultural productivity and transportation.
Latin America
Mexico, Central America, South America
Spanish and Portugese are dominant languages. Blend of Native cultures and European colonial influence. Diverse economic and political systems.
Most Latin American countries rely on one or two main exports, with control over export production and distribution concentrated in a small percent of the population.
High economic inequality.
Challenges to development: geographical limitations, economic issues, sustainable development.
Physical Geography: High mountains (Andes), wide plains, high altitude plateaus.
Many natural resources, some unused due to political issues, geographic barriers, or lack of economic funds. Tropical climate, rain forests and savannas, vertical climate zones, grasslands.
Europe
Diverse cultures and geography. Generally industrialized and developed, with differences in culture between nations. Influenced by Ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and Christianity. Many European cultures were spread across the world through colonization. Recent formation of the European Union has brought stability and diplomatic relations to European nations. Focusing on environmental issues.
Physical Geography:
East and South have mountain ranges, north has plains, coastal and island areas are warmed by ocean currents, West has moderate climate, south has Mediterranean climate. Lots of natural resources. Waterways connect inner regions to the coast. Most is industrialized. Agriculture has existed there for thousands of years.
Russia
Previously a communist state - collapsed 1991 - and has struggled in the transition to a market economy. Destruction of natural resources, notably Chernobyl. Needs to improve transportation and communication systems, and use natural resources more efficiently to transition to a market economy.
3/4 of Russia’s population lives West of the Ural mountains. 100+ ethnic groups, but 80% ethnic Russian.
Physical Geography: Parts of Asia and Europe. Largest country. Wide variety of climates - plains, plateaus, mountains, and tundra, taiga in north central and steppes and grasslands in the south. Harsh climate - frozen rivers make transportation difficult. Siberia has permafrost. Native peoples in Siberia live a hunter - gatherer lifestyle.
North Africa, Southwest Asia, Central Asia
Population centers around sources of water. Earliest civilizations began here. Place of origin of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Huge, independent ancient civilizations, but then parceled into European colonies during 18th and 19th centuries. Most regained independence during 20th century. Islam is a unifying force for many countries in this area. Agriculture is a large resource - great climate. Most valuable resource is oil. Lots of conflict around natural resources - which creates environmental issues.
Physical Geography: Mountains, rivers, peninsulas… Earthquakes are common, large portion of the world’s oil, Large rivers (ie. Nile) go through phases of drought and fertility - technology has advanced to moderate these changes. Arid lands have led to the development of practices like irrigation to increase agricultural productivity.
Southern Africa
Uneven population distribution due to geographical features. AIDS is a major challenge in this region - poverty and unsettled political systems make it difficult to fight it. Many rely on subsistence farming. Some areas are much more industrialized than others, largely to due availability of resources.
Physical geography: South of Saraha Desert - High elevations, some areas dominated by plateaus, mountain ranges, large rift valley. Not ideal for settlement. Further south, there are bodies of water and famous waterfalls. tropical climate, rain forests, savannas, steppes, and dexter areas. Natural resources are minerals, gems and water.
South Asia
Home to one of the oldest civilizations in the Indus River Valley. Large disparity between rural and urban life. Hinduism and Buddhism are the most prevalent religions. Parts (notably India) were subject British rule, working to rebuild independent government and social systems. Widely diverse religions and languages. Industrialization is growing, especially tech.
Physical Geography: longest alluvial plain - plain formed by the shifting floodplains of rivers and river systems. 3 major river systems - Ganges, Indus, and Brahmaputra. Large deposits of minerals like iron ore. Mountains, plains, plateaus and many islands. Tropical, highland, and desert climates. Monsoon winds bring long rainy season. Agriculture varies depending on the region.
East Asia
Range of governments and economies, ranging from communist and democratic. Many countries were Isolationist until the 20th centuries. Very diverse languages, ethnic groups, religions. More people live in urban than rural areas - shortage of farm works in some countries. Japan is the most industrialized country.
Japan, Taiwan, and South Korea - more industrial
China and Mongolia - more rural.
Physical Geography: Lots of mineral resources in different areas. Long coast, large population, sparse farmlands. Ocean is major source of sustenance. Monsoons provide most rainfall. Typhoons, earthquakes, volcanoes, tsunamis.
Southeast Asia
All colonized by European countries except for Siam/Thailand. All are now independent, many conflicts between democratic and communist forces in the 20th century. Buddhism and Islam are influential religions. Growing industrialization and migration from rural to urban areas. Natural disasters such as volcanoes, typhoons, and flash flooding are fairly common - causing economic and social disruption.
Physical geography: Half the region is islands. Mountain ranges on islands make up the Ring of Fire - volcanic activity. Also earthquakes and tsunamis. Lots of rivers and natural resources - gems, fossil fuels, minerals. Two seasons - wet/monsoons and dry. Tropical/rainforest climates, some mountain read, and tropical savannas.
South Pacific Islands (Oceania) and Australia
Migration from Southeast Asia. Hunter - gather and agricultural communities. European countries took control later. Some Pacific Islands are still under European or American control, mixing indigenous ways of life and European cultural influences, and global industrial and tourist influences. Uneven population distribution due to extreme conditions (like desert in Australia). Agriculture and tourism are big parts of these economies.
Physical Geography: Australia - deserts, mountains, and lowlands. Economy driven by agriculture and minerals. Inland steppe climate is good for raising livestock, coast receives rainfall for crops. Oceania - Tropical climates with wet and dry seasons.
Antarctica
Only continent not claimed by a single country. No permanent human habitations. Visited by scientists and explorers.
Physical Geography: Covered in ice, some wildlife (penguins) and vegetation (moss and lichens). Major resource is scientific information.
Study of Human - Environment Interaction
The reasons for and consequences of the ways humans changes their environment. And how the environment influences human behavior. Used to determine the best course of action and determine long term results when making significant changes to the environment (like dams, roads, etc).
Plate Tectonics
Geological theory of plate tectonics. Earth is made up of 10 major, several minor tectonic plates made of crust, floating on the mantle (made of molten rock). They move, creating changes in the earth’s surface. Slow movements are continental drift, fast create earthquakes. Can create mountain ranges, volcanic activity, major earthquakes, deep rifts.
3 Types of Plate Boundaries
Convergent, Divergent, Transform
Convergent Boundaries
Plates move towards each other. Can create mountains via continental collision. Or one plate slides under the other - called subduction - which leads to volcanic activity.
Divergent Boundaries
Plates move away from each other. Leads to rifts like the Mid - Atlantic Ridge and Great Rift Valley.
Transform Boundaries
Plates slide in opposite directions, rubbing against each other’s edges. Creates earthquakes. Major fault likes (like San Andreas Fault) are along transform boundaries.
Erosion
Movement of loose material on the earth’s surface - soil, sand, rock fragments, displaced by wind, water, ice, plants, humans.
Mechanical Erosion
erosion due to natural forces
Chemical Erosion
erosion due to human activities
Weathering
Atmospheric elements (water, heat, ice and pressure) change the earth’s surface.
Transportation
loose material moved by wind, water, or ice. For example, glacial movement can carry rocks and boulders long distances. Causes deposition.
Deposition
When material is transported, it is deposited and builds up, making formations like moraines and sand dunes.
Geographical Divisions
Occur due to religious, political, linguistic, or ethnic differences. May also be motivated by desires to control resources, control trade routes, or control human populations.
State Sovereignty
The recognition that divisions of geographical areas are controlled by a government or group of people. These authorities control both the territory and its resources and inhabitants. All the earth except Antarctic is under the rule of some government.
International Alliances
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), the Common Market, the European Union (EU), the United Nations (UN), the Caribbean Community, and the Council of Arab Economic Unity
Companies and multinational corporations also create alliances to control resources, production, and the market place
Agricultural Revolution
Began with the invention of the plow in Mesopotamia - allowed people to cultivate crops in large quantities. This led to the development of stable communities to contribute labor to large - scale agricultural production. Stable farming began to replace hunter/gatherer lifestyles. Societies became dependent on crops. Trading livestock and surplus crops led to the growth of large - scale commerce and and trade.
After agricultural revolution began, human societies began changing their surroundings to accommodate agriculture and livestock raising.
Common Environmental Damages
Clearing areas for agriculture, redirecting waterways for irrigation.
Large - scale agriculture loosens topsoil and causes damaging erosions.
Large cities leads to degraded air quality, water pollution, and many other impacts.
Environmental Policy
Laws passed to reduce human impact on the environment and deal with the side effects of human impact on the environment.
Ecology
The study of the way living creatures interact with their environment.
Biogeography
Study of the ways physical features of the earth affect living creatures.
3 levels of ecology
Ecosystem - a specific physical environment and the organisms that live there
Biosphere - a group of ecosystems, usually with similar organisms and climate and soil. Examples: rain forests, taigas, deserts, and tundra
Habitat - an area in which a specific species usually lives. Includes necessary soil, water, and resources, and other species that compere for those resources.
Interactions between Species
Competition - compete for resources, the same and different species
Predation - one species eats the other
Symbiosis - two species exist in the same environment without affecting the other, some symbiotic relationships are beneficial.
Adaptation
If a species is relocated to a new habitat or if their habitat changes, it must adapt in order to survive, changing behavior, physiology, or other aspects. Some species are more adaptable than others, adaptability increases chances of survival - humans are very adaptable, so we are able to live almost anywhere in the world.
Biodiversity
The variety of habitats on the earth, and the variety of organisms in a habitat. Greater biodiversity makes it more likely a habitat will flourish, along with the organisms in it. Climate change, human impact, etc can reduce biodiversity and cause extinction of species.
six essential elements of geography
the world in spatial terms places and regions physical systems human systems environment and society the uses of geography
five fundamental geographic themes
location place human-environment interaction movement region
five fundamental geographic themes
location (latitude and longitude) place (the relationship between one place and other places) human-environment interaction movement region
