Geography 2 Terms Flashcards
1
Q
Taxonomy
A
The sub discipline of biology concerned with the classification and naming of organisms. The main goal is to determine the evolutionary relationship between groups of organisms. This is also known as systematics.
2
Q
Taxa/Taxon
A
Group(s) taxonomists develop for classification.
3
Q
Species
A
Groups of taxonomically similar individuals. In biology, species are defined as organisms that can produce viable and fertile offspring.
4
Q
Genera/Genus
A
Grouped organisms that are generally, but not exactly, similar to each other.
5
Q
Families
A
Genera that are morphologically similar and likely possess evolutionary linkages are grouped together.
6
Q
Orders
A
Families that are related are grouped together.
7
Q
Classes
A
Orders are grouped together.
8
Q
Phyla/Phylum
A
Classes are grouped together.
9
Q
Kingdoms
A
Phyla are grouped together into 5 categories. The highest level of Taxonomy.
10
Q
Population
A
All individuals of a given species in a prescribed area.
11
Q
Metapopulations
A
Interbreeding and other interactions between these separated populations of the same species may only occur relatively frequently or extremely infrequently.
12
Q
Community
A
population with all the other species of organisms in its environment.
13
Q
Autecology
A
Ecological research that focuses on one species
14
Q
Synecology
A
research that focuses on the interactions between species in communities
15
Q
Ecosystem
A
the relationship between the species of our community
and the physical factors of the environment, particularly when we examine flows of energy and matter through this biophysical system
16
Q
Biomes
A
Very large areas of the earth’s surface that have a similar climate and vegetation
17
Q
Biosphere
A
all of life on the planet
18
Q
Trophic Levels
A
The various levels through which energy flows from its initial capture by the biosphere until its dissipation as waste heat
19
Q
Photosynthesis
A
6CO2 + 12H2O -> (Light) -> C6H12O6 + 6H2O + 6O2
20
Q
Stomata
A
C02 enters the leaves of plants through openings created by specialized sets of cells; also allow the release of oxygen and water vapor from the interior of the leaf
21
Q
C3 Pathway
A
the C02 from the atmosphere is converted into a 3-carbon molecule called 3-phosphoglyceric acid.
22
Q
C4 Pathway
A
converts C02 into two 4-carbon molecules: malic and aspartic acid.
23
Q
CAM Pathway
A
C02 is absorbed at night and stored as malic acid. During the light of day, photosynthesis is conducted by the C3 pathway
24
Q
Autotrophs
A
Organisms that are able to fix energy through photosynthesis rather than derive it from the consumption of other organisms. (i.e. plants, also known as phototrophs)
25
Heterotrophs
Organisms that rely on other organisms to provide energy
26
Respiration
the oxidative reaction that breaks the high-energy bounds of carbohydrates to release energy for the organism's metabolism. Thus, respiration is the reverse of the process of photosynthesis, with metabolic energy being produced.
27
Troposphere
all life exists in the lowest level of the atmosphere
28
Tropical Rainy Climates
found in the equatorial regions. This zone has monthly average temperatures of 18° Cor higher, with little seasonal variation. Rainfall is abundant throughout the year and always exceeds evaporation.
29
Dry Climates
found mainly in the subtropical zone. Temperatures are generally warm, and evaporation exceeds precipitation throughout all or most of the year.
30
Mild Humid Climates
found in the midlatitudes. The temperature of the
coldest month falls between 18° C and - 3° C, with a clear difference in winter and summer seasons. Precipitation exceeds evaporation.
31
Snowy Climates
found in the mid- to high latitudes. The coldest month has an average temperature below -3° C, but the average for the warmest month is greater than 10° C. Precipitation exceeds evaporation.
32
Polar Climates
found in the polar regions. The average temperature of the warmest month is less than 10° C. Precipitation is low, but evaporation is very limited.
33
Heliophytes
Plants that grow best in full sunglight
34
Sciophytes
Plants that grow best in shade
35
Perennials
Plants that live for more than one year
36
Annuals
plants which must germinate from seed, grow, flower, and produce seed within a single year
37
Phenology
the timing of changes in the growth of the plant
38
Poikilotherms
Organisms that assume the temperature of their environment
39
Deciduous
Plants that lose their frost-sensitive leaves during the cold winter season
40
Dimorphic
An interesting adaptation to high temperatures in dry
regions. In hot and dry periods, these plants are typified by small leaves, while in the cool season, they support larger leaves.
41
Homeotherms
Organisms maintain a relatively steady body temperature through the metabolic generation of heat
42
Eurythermic
Species that can tolerate a wide range of temperature
| conditions
43
Stenothermic
Species with restricted temperature ranges
44
Allen's Rule
Animals that live in cold environments have shorter extremities, such as limbs or ears, than related forms in warm environments. The shorter the extremities are relative to body mass, the lower the rate of heat loss.
45
Xerophytes
Plants that can exist in dry environments
46
Meophytes
Plants that require moderately moist conditions
47
Hydrophytes
Plants found growing in water or very wet soils
48
Xylem
The specialized vascular tissues that conduct water
49
Phloem
The specialized vascular tissues that transfer nutrients
50
Transpiration
The release of water to the atmosphere by plants
51
Evapotranspiration
The loss of water to the air through transpiration is much greater than the amount of water lost through direct evaporation from the soil surface
52
Sclerophyllous leaves
leaves in the dry season which often have hard and waxy cuticles that decrease moisture loss
53
Euryhaline
These species have a special capacity to regulate their
| cellular chemistry and avoid the development of lethal osmotic pressure gradients.
54
Density
Measure of population abundance per unit of area and
is often reported as the number of individuals per square meter or hectare on land and the number of individuals per cubic meter in aquatic systems
55
Carrying Capacity
The number of individuals that the environment can support per meter or hectare
56
Niche
This two-dimensional representation of the environment in which the species can survive
57
Habitat
explicit spatial environment in which species can be found
58
Generalists
Species, which can tolerate a wide range of environmental conditions, have wide ranges of tolerances on environmental gradients and wide niche breadths
59
Specialists
Species, which have very narrow environmental
| tolerances, have more restricted gradient distributions and niche breadths
60
Predation
one organism consumes another
61
Stenophagous
Predators that have a very narrow range of prey
| species; selective predators
62
Euryphagous
using many different plant species for food
63
Optimal Foraging Theory
First, it benefits predators to focus on prey species that provide the highest ratio of food energy relative to the energy required for foraging.
64
Keystone species
predators that significantly influence the whole composition of ecosystems by controlling the population sizes of prey species.
65
Interspecific Competition
the interaction between individuals of two or more species in which the growth and/or fertility is decreased or the mortality is increased for both species.
66
Intraspecific Competition
competing individuals are within the same species
67
Allelopathy
In some competitive interactions, one organism exudes a chemical that is deleterious to another organism.
68
Mutualism
Different species may interact closely with each other in a manner that benefits both species
69
Commensalism
benefits one species and has no impact on the other
70
Parasitism
one species benefits at the expense of the other.
71
Parasites
organisms that are wholly dependent on other organisms
| for nutrients and, in many cases, microhabitat.
72
Muellerian mimicry
species that is poisonous or unpalatable to predators possesses the same coloring or shape as another species that is also poisonous or unpalatable.
73
Batesian mimicry
occurs when one species that is not poisonous or unpalatable has the same coloring or shape as a species that is poisonous or unpalatable
74
Fundamental Niche
The broad niche of a species in the absence of competition
75
Realized Niche
The more restricted niche that occurs if competition excludes the species from certain portions of niche space
76
Competitive Exclusion Principle
In theory, no two species should have completely overlapping niches.
77
ecotone
The spatial boundary between adjacent communities
78
community type
a group of species that is typically found in a specific type of habitat.
79
association
groups of plant species commonly found in similar habitats
80
stands
Forest plant ecologists generally refer to the individual sites as...
81
dominance types
To simplify descriptions, plant biogeographers and foresters often describe associations in terms of the dominant plant species and call such associations...
82
species evenness
the degree to which the number of individual organisms are evenly divided between the different species
of the community
83
Superorganism community concept
Clements argued that because of interactions between
species during the climax phase of succession and because of facilitation during seral stages, plants and animals are bound together into tight communities that
behave like superorganisms. In this view, all of the species in a community are like the different organs of a larger organism. All the species depend on the functioning of the other species in the community and cannot persist outside of this
association.
84
Individualistic community concept
Gleason argued that what we perceive
as biological communities are simply areas of similar habitat where species coexist because they have somewhat comparable environmental tolerances and
resource demands. Gleason went on to argue that each of these species has its own individual sets of tolerances and demands and do not always occur together. Since the species do not always have to occur together, communities cannot be thought of as superorganisms.
85
ordination analysis
The examination of the distribution of species and communities relative to environmental conditions and along environmental gradients
86
releve approach
Using this approach, the researcher makes a number of qualitative observations on the species observed in the community.
87
formations
Units that are defined on the basis of similar vegetation structure
88
Phanerophytes
Perennial land plants that are trees and very large shrubs with persistent above-ground stems and buds. These plants do not require protected microsites in order to grow or shield buds during cold winters or other dormant periods.
89
Chamaephytes
Perennial land plants that grow as small shrubs. They hay·
persistent above-ground stems and buds. These plants do depend on protected microsites to protect buds in winter or during dormant periods.
90
Hemicryptophytes
Perennial land plants that are small shrubs and herbs. They have persistent stems and buds located at the soil surface.
91
Cryptophytes
Perennial land plants that are small shrubs and herbs. They depend on subsurface organs such as bulbs and corms to survive winter or dormant periods.
92
Therophytes
Annual land plants that survive winter or other periods, such as summer drought, as seeds only.
93
Hydrophytes
Water plants
94
Megatherms
Plants that require high temperatures and abundant moisture.
95
Xerophiles
Plants that require high temperatures and tolerate drought.
96
Mesotherms
Plants that require moderate temperatures and moisture
| availability.
97
Microtherms
Plant that have relatively low heat and moisture requirements.
98
Hekistotherms
Plants that tolerate extremely cold conditions.
99
Forest
Sites dominated by trees and a generally continuous canopy.
100
Woodland
Sites typified by widely spaced trees allowing for substantial areas
dominated by shrubs, grasses, or herbs.
101
Shrubland
Sites dominated by a relatively continuous cover of shrubs.
102
Grassland
Sites dominated by grasses and herbs.
103
Scrub
Sites dominated by widely spaced shrubs.
104
Desert
Sites dominated by sparse xerophytic plant cover with mostly bare
ground.
105
ecological equivalents
widely separated, but physiognomically and structurally similar, species and vegetation formations
106
convective precipitation
precipitation which occurs when the warming of air at the
surface causes the air to rise until it becomes cool enough for precipitation to occur. This phenomenon causes the thunderstorms and rain showers typical of
summer weather in many parts of the world, particularly the tropics.
107
frontal precipitation
precipitation which occurs when warm air masses rise up and over denser masses of cool air. An example of this phenomenon are the winter storms that occur in the middle latitude regions
108
orographic precipitation
precipitation that is generated when air is forced to rise when it encounters physical barriers such as mountains
109
Euphotic Zone
The portion of the lake water column that receives sufficient sunlight for photosynthesis; plants can only live in this area
110
Disphotic zone
Depths beneath this that receive enough light for fish and other organisms to see, but not enough for sustained photosynthesis
111
Aphotic Zone
Depths that are totally dark
112
Littoral zone
The shallow margins of the Jake where plants can root and receive adequate light for photosynthesis
113
Profundal zone
the deep dark portion where rooted plants cannot exist
114
thermocline
there is a gradient of decreasing temperature below the surface of the lake
115
Epilimnion
high enough temperature, shallow (productive zone)
116
Metalimnion
O2 levels declining, less light, drop in temperature
117
Hypolimnion
approaching or at profundal zone
118
Evergreen
plants that never lose their leaves
119
glycol
a chemical that can lower a plant's freezing temperature
120
krummholtz
trees growing low on the ground; light energy is intercepted by surface, ground is warmer, high enough temperature for photosynthesis
121
Baobab tree (genus: Adansonia)
Trees with enlarged trunks that can hold up to 120kL of water
122
saguaro cactus (Carnegiea gigantea)
this distinctive and widely recognized plant is actually only found in the Sonoran Desert of California, Arizona, and adjacent Mexico. This cactus is damaged or killed if exposed to prolonged freezing temperatures. Young saguaro that survive are found sheltered beneath more frost-tolerant desert shrubs. The cover of these shrubs acts as a thermal blanket, capturing heat radiated from the ground and keeping the microclimate of the small saguaro warm at night. As the cactus grows, it eventually rises above the cover of the protective shrub. The range of the saguaro is restricted to areas that do not experience more than about 12 to 24 continuous hours of air temperatures below 0 C.
123
eastern phoebe (Sayormis phoebe)
Its northern range in eastern North America corresponds
fairly well with the -4° C isotherm for average minimum January temperatures. Temperatures lower than this likely require increased metabolic rates that cannot be met by the feeding rates of this bird at its northern limits.
124
lake trout (Salvelinus namaycush)
species that is driven towards extinction in lakes that contain lampreys (Petromyzon marinus). The introduction of a generalist predator by humans has led to the extinction or near extinction of prey species (due to the building of shipping canals).
125
kangaroo rats (Genus: Dipodomys)
same genus but different species share similarities for food and habitat. sharp boundaries, competitive exclusion, possible divergence; complete competitors cannot coexist. When species are closely competing, one is excluded
126
Interference competition
actively pushing competitors out
127
Resource competition
competing for for resources, indirectly pushing out competitors
128
Lotka-Volterra Model
This concept of linked oscillations in predator-prey populations. It is a simple and elegant model
that explains why selective predators can cause changes in prey population size but are less likely to cause extinction. When the prey population size gets too low,
the predator population size crashes.
129
snowshoe hare (Lepus americanus)
An example of the Lotka-Volterra model; the lynx populations (Lynx canadensis) do indeed follow the increases and decreases in the hare population size.
130
Chipmunk competition
E. dorsalis very aggressive in physically excluding other chipmunks within its range. This strategy is particularly effective in the open and scattered woods of lower elevations. At higher elevations, E. dorsalis expends much energy trying to defend habitat in relatively continuous forest. In contrast, the two species E. umbrinus and E. quadrivitattus do not waste as much energy in defending territory in the closed forest, and this gives them a survival advantage over E. dorsalis. The species E. minimus is less aggressive and behaviorally subordinate to all of the other species.
131
Humboldt (1800s)
The scientist who observed climate tends to be the distributor of plants around the globe
132
Merriam (19th century, 1800s)
Mapped out vegetation by location and elevation; He used the term life zones to refer to these elevational
and latitudinal bands of similar climate and vegetation
133
Whittaker
In 1975, the American ecologist who published a classification of global vegetation formations and their relationship to mean annual precipitation and mean annual temperature
134
Permafrost soil
Soil never completely thaws out during summer, stays below freezing, groundwater on top of soil
135
Alfred Wegener
Proposed the theory of continental drift (1912-1929)
136
theory of continental drift
1. continents look like puzzle pieces
2. similarities in geology and fossils in different continents
3. Greenland was moving in reference to other continents
4. Continental masses are lighter than oceanic rock
137
Pangaea (250 mya)
Supercontinent that was thought to have existed until the Permian-Pennsylvanian period
138
Gondwanaland (150 mya)
The southern portion of Pangaea, which included modern South America,
Africa, Australia, Antarctica and India
139
Laurasia (150 mya)
the northern area comprised of North America, Europe, and most of Asia
140
Parangea
land between Asia and N. America during the ice age
141
Dropstones
Icebergs melt, stone underneath drops into ocean
142
Greenhouse Gases
molecules such as C02, methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N20) which absorb long-wave radiation (heat) in the atmosphere rather than allowing it to escape into space. Increasing the amount of greenhouse gasses does not slow the flow of light energy from the sun to the earth’s surface, but it does slow the radiation of heat to space and this warms the planet.
143
Tree-Ring Analysis
one of the most important tools used by biogeographers to reconstruct recent past climatic changes
144
Paleomagetism
important geophysical technique that was developed in the postwar period and has been applied to both marine and terrestrial geology.
When igneous rocks that contain elements such as iron or titanium cool, the earth's magnetic field causes mineral grains to become oriented to the magnetic field. Once the rocks have solidified, this orientation is locked in.
145
plate tectonics
Geophysicists now believe that the movement of the continents is ultimately driven by the dynamics of the inner earth.
146
Glaciation
A period of regional or global development and expansion of glaciers.
147
Charles Keeling (late 1950s)
developed a technique to measure the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere. Remote sites are used for such measurements because they do not have an influence from local burning of fossil fuels.
